_Every Boy’s
Mechanical
Library_
[Illustration]
AUTOMOBILES
EVERY BOY’S MECHANICAL LIBRARY
By J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
Price, per volume, 60 cents, Net. Postage extra.
AUTOMOBILES
This is a subject in which every boy is interested. While few mechanics
have the opportunity to actually build an automobile, it is the
knowledge, which he must acquire about every particular device used,
that enables him to repair and put such machines in order. The aim of
this book is to make the boy acquainted with each element, so that
he may understand why it is made in that special way, and what the
advantages and disadvantages are of the different types. To that end
each structure is shown in detail as much as possible, and the parts
separated so as to give a clear insight of the different functions, all
of which are explained by original drawings specially prepared to aid
the reader.
MOTORS
To the boy who wants to know the theory and the practical working
of the different kinds of motors, told in language which he can
understand, and illustrated with clear and explicit drawings, this
volume will be appreciated. It sets forth the groundwork on which
power is based, and includes steam generators, and engines, as well
as wind and water motors, and thoroughly describes the Internal
Combustion Engine. It has special chapters on Carbureters, Ignition,
and Electrical systems used, and particularly points out the parts and
fittings required with all devices needed in enginry. It explains the
value of compounding, condensing, pre-heating and expansion, together
with the methods used to calculate and transmit power. Numerous
original illustrations.
AEROPLANES
This work is not intended to set forth the exploits of aviators nor
to give a history of the Art. It is a book of instructions intended
to point out the theories of flying, as given by the pioneers, the
practical application of power to the various flying structures;
how they are built; the different methods of controlling them; the
advantages and disadvantages of the types now in use; and suggestions
as to the directions in which improvements are required. It distinctly
points out wherein mechanical flight differs from bird flight, and what
are the relations of shape, form, size and weight. It treats of kites,
gliders and model aeroplanes, and has an interesting chapter on the
aeroplane and its uses in the great war. All the illustrations have
been specially prepared for the work.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
[Illustration: [Overview of car parts]]
_Every Boy’s Mechanical Library_
AUTOMOBILES
BY
J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
_Author of
Motors--Aeroplanes_
_ILLUSTRATED_
NEW YORK
CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY
CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY 1
CHAPTER I. AUTOMOBILE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 5-12
Development of the Industry. The First Patent. Newton’s
car. Watt’s Invention. Traction. Push legs. Power. Springs.
Water Tube Boiler. The First Differential. The First
Gas Motor Car. Gasoline Car. Flash Boiler System. The
Carbureter. Improved Structures. The Order of Development.
Speed vs. Power. Lighter Vehicles.
CHAPTER II. THE FRAME AND ITS ACCESSORIES 13-23
The Frame. Channel-bar Frames. How the Frame is suspended.
Fore and aft Motion. Lateral Motion. Cantilever
Spring. Shock Absorbers. The Axle. Live Axles. Dead
Axles. Semi-Floating Axle. Full Floating Axle. Wheels.
Flexibility. Large vs. Small Wheels. Minimizing Shocks.
Resiliency.
CHAPTER III. TIRES, TUBES AND RIMS 24-36
Tires. Solid Tires. Cushion Tires. Pneumatic Tires. Single
Tubes. Double Tubes. The Outer Tube. The Inner Tube.
Advantage of Double Tube. Putting on and Taking off Double
Tubes. Damage to Tires. Repair to Tires. Vulcanizing.
Oil as an enemy of Tires. Non-skidding Tires. Tires for
City Use. Side slipping. Faulty Alinement. Broken Fabric.
Bruises. Under Inflation. Stretched Tires. Blistered Tires.
Rim Cutting. Inflation Pressures. Expansion of Heated Air.
CHAPTER IV. THE STEERING GEAR AND BRAKES 37-45
The Steering Column. Motor Control. Throttle Movement.
Steering Wheel Type. Steering Gear. Front Axle. Running
Brake. Double-acting Contracting Brake. Contracting Brake.
Equalizers. The Emergency Brake. Combined Service and
Emergency Brake.
CHAPTER V. THE DIFFERENTIAL 46-54
The Meaning of Differential. Equalizing Bar. Unequal
Resistance. Balanced Equalizer Bar. Transmission Wheel.
Action of Transmission Gearing.
CHAPTER VI. THE DRIVE 55-61
Power Transmitted to Wheels through Springs. Illustrating
power transmission. Torsion Rod. The Torque Tube. Radius
Rod. Chain Drive. Jack Shaft. Objections to Chains. Shaft
Drive. Train of Shafting.
CHAPTER VII. CLUTCHES 62-68
Clutch Requirements, Frictional Contact. Cone Clutch.
Compression Spring in Clutches. The Multiple Disk Clutch.
Its Construction. Disadvantages of Multiple-Disk Clutches.
Care of Multiple Disk Clutch.
CHAPTER VIII. TRANSMISSION, OR CHANGE SPEED GEARS 69-89
Transmission Leverage. Economy of Transmission Gearing.
Types of Transmission. The Progressive. Low Gear.
Intermediate Gear. High Gear. Reverse. Selective Type.
Low Gear. Intermediate Gear. High Gear. Reverse Gear.
Control Lever for Progressive Transmission. Operation
of the Selective Gear. Selector Bars. Shifting Lever.
Speed Selectors. 3-speed Selectors. 4-Speed Selectors. An
approved Type of Selector. Controlling the Selector. Using
the Clutch and Selector. Planetary Transmission. Frictional
Transmission.
CHAPTER IX. THE MOTOR 90-108
Value of Fuel Utilized. The Waste. Water Absorption. Engine
Types. The Four-Cycle Engine. The Two-Cycle. Compression.
Economy of Four-Cycle Engine. Valve Movements. The Ignition
point in the Cycle. The Fly-wheel. Impulses in Four-Cycle
Engine. The Cylinder Case, and Connections. Piston and
Crank Construction. Calculating the Efficiency. Pressures
in Explosions. Expansion Line. Mean Effective Pressure. The
Two-cycle Engine. Foot Pounds. Work or Energy. Cycle of
Operation. The Crank Shaft. Special Metal. Engine Troubles.
Difficulties pointed out. Starting the Engine. Carbureter.
Low Compression. Mixtures. Spark Plugs. The Weather.
Drainage.
CHAPTER X. COOLING SYSTEMS 109-117
Air Cooling. Air-Cooling Devices. Water Cooling. Gravity
System. Locating the Reservoir. Force System of Cooling.
The Radiator Connections. Radiators. Construction
of Radiator. Operation of Radiator. The Pump. Pump
Construction. Action of Pump.
CHAPTER XI. CARBURETERS 118-132
Carbureted Air. Composition of Gasoline. Gasoline
Expansion. Requirements of a Carbureter. Evaporation.
Air Saturation. Air Contact with Gasoline. Instantaneous
Combustion. Compression. Compression as a Mixing Means.
Carbureter Types. The Spraying Carbureter. Dissecting the
Carbureter. The Mixing Chamber. The Float Chamber. The
Venturi Tube. The Inlet Valve. The Throttle Valve. The
Secondary Air Supply. Automatic Admission of Secondary
Air. Carbureter Adjustments. Special Points Concerning
Carbureters. Thin Mixtures. Speeds and Mixtures. Surface
Carbureter. The Float. The Oil Inlet. Securing Surface for
air Contact.
CHAPTER XII. IGNITION SYSTEMS 133-158
Seeing the Effect of Electricity. Action of a current.
Amperes and Volts. Conductivity. Resistance. Generating
Electricity. Magnetic Field. Armature. Batteries. Metallic
Couples. What Determines Voltage. Controlling Amperage.
Dry Batteries. Cell Construction. Connecting up Cells. The
Series Connection. The Parallel Connection. Series-Multiple
Connection. Storage Batteries. The Sparking Methods. Air
Resistance. Make and Break Spark. The High Tension System.
The Spark Plug. How Produced. The Magneto. Difference
Between Dynamo and Magneto. Advantages of Magneto.
Different Kinds of Magnetos. Primary and Secondary.
Igniters. High Tension Coils, Inductance. Constructing a
coil. A Simple High Tension Sparking System. Condenser.
Interrupter. Arrangement of a high Tension System. The
High Tension Connections. The Secondary Coil. Operation
of System. The Spark Gap. Function of the Interrupter.
Vibratory Coils. Operation of Vibratory Coil. Surging
Movement of Current. Timing Device. Contact Makers. The
Contact Breaker. Sparking Plugs. Testing Plugs. Short
Circuiting Faults. Short Circuiting of Secondary Wires.
CHAPTER XIII. AUTOMOBILE ACCESSORIES 159-168
Self Starting. Simple Type of Starter. The Distributer.
Lighting. Car Signals. Speed Signals. Mufflers. Exhaust.
Construction of Muffler. Ball and Roller Bearing. Race
ways. The Three-point Contact. Wrong Constructions. Roller
Bearings. Form of Roller Bearings.
CHAPTER XIV. RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 169-179
Running Close to the Curb. The Middle of the Road.
Community Regulations. Approaching Car Track. Coasting.
Signs of the Road. Operating the Control. The Crucial
Point. Clutch Pedal and Spark control. Neutral Position of
Transmission Lever. Throwing in Gear. In Reversing. Quick
Stops. Ease in Manipulating Progressive System. Wiring for
Lighting System. Wiring up for Ignition.
CHAPTER XV. FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 180-190
An Experiment with Gasoline. Air Necessary for Explosion.
Making an Explosive Mixture. Gunpowder. Filled Tank not
Explosive. Why Gasoline will not Burn Within a closed Tank.
Filling Tanks having Dried out Gasoline. To Extinguish
Gasoline Fires. Ammonia as an Extinguisher. Leaks.
Lubricants. Viscosity. Carbonization. Acid in Lubricants.
Composition of Lubricants. Grease. Graphite. The Test
for Cylinder Lubricants. Fire Test. Lubricating Systems.
Pressure Method. The Precision System. Combined Force,
Feed, and Splash System.
CHAPTER XVI. CARE OF THE CAR 191-200
Regular Inspection a good Habit. The Brake Shoe.
Familiarity with Working Parts. The Engine. Connecting
Rods. Valves. Cam Shaft. The Clearance. Clutches. The
Clutch Leather. Rivets in the Leather. Transmission System.
The Differential. Universal Joints. Steering Gear. Worm
and Worm Wheel. Batteries. The Vibrator. The Electrolyte.
Contact Points. The Magneto. Magneto Impulses. Timing the
Magneto. The Carbureter. Wrong Adjustment. Weather.
CHAPTER XVII. ELECTRIC VEHICLES 201-214
Requirements. Gasoline-electric Trucks. The Current Used.
Mechanically-produced Electricity. Current from Batteries.
Primary Battery. Secondary or Storage Battery. Reversal of
Current. Charging. Time required, and Current. Troubles
in Use. Overcharging. The Circuiting. Economy in Use
of Current. Series and Parallel. The Connections. The
Controller. The General Equipment. Accessories. Seating
Arrangement. The Transmission. Brakes.
GLOSSARY 215
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Views of Plain Frame 13
2. Quarter Elliptic 14
2a. Half Elliptic 15
3. Three-quarter Elliptic 15
4. Full Elliptic 16
4a. Cantilever Spring 17
5. Fore and Aft Motion 17
6. Lateral Motion 18
7. Floating Axle 20
8. Semi-floating Axle 20
9. Crossing Depression 22
10. Striking Obstruction 22
11. Solid Tire 24
12. Single Tube 25
13. Double Tube 26
14. Illustrating Tire-removing Tool 27
15. Vulcanizer 29
16. Turning Action on Front Wheel 31
17. Illustrating the Strain on Fabric 33
18. Illustrating the Strain on Fabric 33
19. Effect of Flat Tire 34
20. Steering Wheel 38
21. Steering Gear 39
22. Type of Front Axle 40
23. Contracting Brake 41
24. Expanding Brake 41
25. Contract Mechanism 43
26. Equalizer Bar 44
27. Rear Axle. Service and Emergency Brake 45
28. Equalizing Mechanism 47
29. Resistance in Equalization 47
30. Equalizer and Differential Movements 48
31. Differential in Housing 50
32. Section of Differential 51
33. Side View of Differential Wheel 51
34. Top View of Differential Wheel 52
34a. Differential Gears 53
35. Radius Rods 56
36. Torque Tube 57
37. Chain Drive 58
38. Shaft Drive 60
39. Straight Line Drive 60
40. Cone Clutch 63
41. Multiple Disk Clutch 65
42. Progressive Transmission. Low 70
43. Neutral Position 71
44. Intermediate 72
45. High 73
46. Reverse 75
47. Selective Transmission. Low Gear 77
48. Intermediate 78
49. High 79
50. Reverse 80
51. Progressive Control Mechanism 81
52. Selective Control Mechanism 83
53. 3-Speed 85
54. 3-Speed 85
55. 3-Speed 85
56. 4-Speed 85
57. 4-Speed 85
58. 4-Speed 85
59. 4-Speed 85
60. Control-Lever Bracket 86
61. Planetary Transmission 88
62. Frictional Transmission 89
63. Firing Position 94
64. Return First Cycle 94
65. Drawing in Charge 96
66. Compression 96
67. Automatic Inlet Valve 98
68. Calculating Efficiency 100
69. Two-Cycle Expansion Position 102
70. Exhausting 103
71. Compression 103
72. Crank Shaft 104
72a. Increasing Cooling Area 110
73. Movement of Heated Water 111
74. Cooling System 112
75. Radiator Type 114
76. Side View of Pump 116
77. Section 116
78. Carbureter Float and Needle 123
79. Carbureter Inlet Valve 124
80. Carbureter Discharge Port 125
81. Carbureter Secondary Air Inlet 127
82. Complete Carbureter 128
83. Surface Carbureter 131
84. Series Wiring 137
85. Parallel Wiring 138
86. Multiple Wiring 139
87. Dynamo Connection 142
88. Magneto 142
89. Induction Coil 146
90. High Tension Circuit 147
91. High Tension Connections 149
92. Vibratory Coil 152
93. Contact Maker 154
94. Contact Breaker 155
95. Starting Mechanism 160
96. Muffler 164
97. 3-Point Roller-Bearing 165
98. Wrong Bearing 165
99. Improper Alinement 166
100. Correct Raceways 166
101. Cage for Roller Bearing 167
102. Roller Bearing 168
103. Caution Signs 171
104. Wiring for Lighting Circuit 175
105. Ignition Wiring 177
106. Lubricating System 189
INTRODUCTORY
The building and development of auto vehicles form one of the most
remarkable pages in the history of manufactures. The subject nearest
the boy is the motorcycle, which is a direct development of the
bicycle. From this to the larger power vehicles is but another step,
so that in setting forth the structures involved the aim should be to
show how one form of device grew out of the preceding one, and how each
structure following in the train, became desirable and necessary.
It would be impossible in a limited work of this kind to show the
various modifications of all the elements which make up a complete
structure.
When these vehicles were first brought out, the mechanism was
exceedingly simple, being, in reality, nothing more than the hitching
up of some form of motive power with running gears.
But now all that is changed. The old type steering mechanism was
imperfect; the attachment of the wheels to the axles had to be
modified; the wheels themselves entirely revolutionized; speed changing
and reversing especially adapted for quick and positive work; and even
the easy starting of the motor had to be provided for.
The entire equipment required a multiplicity of new devices, such as
signaling apparatus, lighting systems, safety appliances, means to
prevent skidding, wind shields, a reorganization of body and seating
arrangement, and a reconstruction of the springs and their attachment
to the chassis.
The electrical part has made as rapid strides, and in the development
the sparking mechanism has approached perfection, and brought into
existence a wonderful variety of systems, so that each cycle of
improvements has made them more efficient, but simpler to construct,
understand and use.
It is a rare thing to-day to see any of the power machines dragged home
by horse power. Not many years ago this was a common sight. The size,
shape, and materials used, have been understood by scientific analysis
and study, so that breakage, under ordinary uses, is not at all a
common thing.
It is the aim of this book to show in as simple a manner as possible
how this wonderful transformation has been brought about, and to
furnish one or more types of each element, properly constructed and
arranged, so that the boy may understand how each part is built, and
the particular reasons for the structures.
In no branch of manufactures can be found such a variety of technical
designations as have grown out of this industry. By virtue of
necessity, many of these names have been coined to suit the conditions.
This knowledge is imparted in these pages, which contains a complete
glossary of every term used in the art.
THE AUTHOR.
AUTOMOBILES
CHAPTER I
AUTOMOBILE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
It is generally believed that automobiles originated within the present
century, this idea having gained currency because, until within the
past twenty years, no practical machines were put on the market.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY.--The development of the industry has been
a peculiar one, in some respects. As early as the year 1275, Roger
Bacon speculated on the possibilities of using steam, or some other
form of motive power on wagons, for propelling them.
This is remarkable, when it is understood that the steam engine, as
constructed by Watt, was not invented until about 1780. Prior to Watt,
steam engines were in operation, the valves of which were manually
operated. Watt’s energies were directed to making the valves work
automatically, and in economizing the use of steam.
THE FIRST PATENT.--In 1619, two Englishmen, Ramsey and Wildgoose,
secured a patent for “drawing carts without horses,” and even before
that time inventors in Germany had made vehicles which were propelled
by powerful springs. In the Netherlands devices were constructed to
move wagons by means of the wind.
NEWTON’S CAR.--In 1700 Sir Isaac Newton invented a steam car, in which
he used Hero’s steam engine, and N. J. Cuguet, a Frenchman, invented a
steam car which had some remarkable properties.
WATT’S INVENTION.--Later Watt invented, and was granted a patent, in
1784, for a steam vehicle, and twelve years thereafter, the first
American patent was issued to W. Read, of Massachusetts, for a
steam-driven automobile.
These were followed by Symington, about the same time, together with
Trevithick, in 1802, Evans in 1805, and Griffith in 1821. While
numerous others contributed to the art, the foregoing were the pioneers.
Evans has the distinction of being the first to build a combined boat
and wagon; and Griffith was the originator of the body type which had
cabins or apartments for the use of travelers.
TRACTION.--Steam engines were in a fairly perfected condition two
hundred years ago, and it has been considered remarkable that for over
one hundred and fifty years no practical road device was brought out.
The reason for this was not due to engine faults, but attributable to
other things which were not understood at the time. One of these was
the question of traction.
PUSH LEGS.--It was believed in the early history of the art, that some
other means should be adopted for applying the power, rather than to
exert it on the wheels; but as late as 1824 Gordon secured a patent for
an improved form of “push legs,” which stepped along and thus propelled
the vehicle. This form of propulsion has been revived, in a measure, by
the so-called “caterpillar tractors,” in which the wheels are provided
with feet, which step along, and are thus specially adapted for heavy
trucks on soft roads or on cross country travel.
POWER.--One other difficulty was in the construction of the boiler.
What is now understood as the water tube boiler was then unknown, hence
they were made in such a manner that a large body of water had to be
carried in the boiler, and this meant great weight to be transported.
SPRINGS.--Prior to the attempted introduction of steam, vehicles had
springs, and the great problem then appeared to find a type of vehicle
which would permit the transfer of the power from the engine to the
wheels, since the springs change the relative positions of the engine
and axle.
WATER TUBE BOILER.--From 1820 to 1840 was the great period of boiler
development. The water tube type provided a means whereby considerably
less than one-half of the water was required in the boiler itself; and
in 1832 a motor drawn vehicle, having springs arranged for carrying the
entire load, was devised by Dr. Church, of Birmingham, England.
THE FIRST DIFFERENTIAL.--Hills, in 1840, made the first differential.
Before that time the power was applied to a single wheel, but in that
year Dietz invented a form of rubber tire. This, and the differential,
made wheels the tractors for all time.
But now a new era was ushered in. It was not a period of active work in
the development of motor-driven wagons, but the possibilities of using
other than steam-driven vehicles was felt.
THE FIRST GAS MOTOR CAR.--In France, Lenoir was the first to devise
a gas motor car. Compressed gas was used; and Ravel, in 1870, also
produced a gas-driven machine. As early as 1862 Gardner used a gas
motor fed with carbureted air instead of gas, but the weight of the
engine was against all attempts in that direction.
GASOLINE CAR.--Markus, of Vienna, built a gasoline car in 1877, and
this was followed by Levassor, the engineer of Panhard and Levassor,
in France, who used Daimler’s invention in the development of their
car. Gottlieb Daimler, the father of the automobile industry, produced
the first practical gasoline motor, his invention being based on the
four-cycle type of engine.
The invention of the gasoline, or the Internal Combustion Engine as it
is called, was the first great advance. The weight of the fuel was so
small, compared with the power produced, that it revolutionized the art.
And now began that series of developments which embraced every part of
the vehicle from the wheels to the top. At first the improvements were
slowly effected, and many of them were most unsatisfactory.
FLASH BOILER SYSTEM.--The flash system of using water in boilers,
invented by Serpollet in France, for a long time kept even pace with
gasoline cars, in economy, and in ease of management; but now that
system has been entirely driven out, and gasoline taken its place.
This, in time, must make way for a still cheaper fuel, and one more
easily handled, either through the crude oil itself, or from some
cheap derivative of it; or, possibly, a spirit distillation, in the
form of alcohol, which will take the place of the high-priced article
now so universally used.
The natural consequence of improvements has been to bring forth a
multiplicity of devices, particularly in the direction of more readily
assimulating and using the hydro-carbon fuels. The efforts of inventors
will now be in the direction of eliminating many of them.
THE CARBURETER.--Heretofore the carbureter has been regarded as an
essential element in every system. What a world, or, rather, worlds
of troubles, hung about the carbureter. It was, and is, delicate,
susceptible of the most minute adjustment, and in times past, before it
had reached the present perfected form, was the bane of every motorist.
A fuel, ignitable at a very low temperature, or capable of ready
volatilization, has been considered absolutely necessary to successful
operation. Such is not the case now.
IMPROVED STRUCTURE.--The delicate parts of the operative mechanism
are being replaced by strong, non-breakable forms, all of which tend
to make a more perfect machine, and this, in turn, insures a greater
demand for vehicles.
THE ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT.--In undertaking any work requiring
mechanical skill, and in which the action of coöperative elements is
necessary, the uses must be considered. In a vehicle, the first element
is the weight to be carried; then the strength of the frame and wheels
necessary to maintain the load.
Next should follow, in order, the power needed, and this entails a
consideration of the speed element. These features are comparatively
simple with a motorcycle; but they are more complex with the automobile
type, particularly as to the structure of the frame and the gearing and
wheels which are to be operated by the motor.
SPEED VS. POWER.--Thus, a motor exerting twenty horse power may run
the vehicle at a maximum of twenty miles an hour, and carry a load of
fifteen hundred pounds; or it may have a maximum speed of eight miles
an hour, and carry three thousand pounds with equal safety. It will
thus be seen that speed is just as important as power, in considering
utility.
LIGHTER VEHICLES.--The tendency of the day is toward lighter vehicles,
brought about, in a large measure, by improved materials in every
direction. It is no longer urged that heavy, ponderous machines are
required to furnish stable and durable vehicles.
Nothing can stop or retard this great industry. It is attractive to
men and fascinating to boys. To acquire a knowledge of its “mysteries,”
should be a part of the education of every young man.