_Problems and Practices in Fingerprinting the Dead_
Each year new graves are opened in potter's fields all over the United
States. Into many of them are placed the unknown dead--those who have
lived anonymously or who, through accident or otherwise, lose their
lives under such circumstances that identification seems impossible.
In a majority of such cases, after the burial of the body, no single
item or clue remains to effect subsequent identification. As a result,
active investigation usually ceases and the cases are forgotten,
unless, of course, it is definitely established that a murder has been
committed.
Reliance is too often placed on visual inspection in establishing the
identity of the deceased. This includes having the remains viewed by
individuals seeking to locate a lost friend or relative. The body is
often decomposed. If death was caused by burning, the victim may be
unrecognizable. As a result of many fatal accidents the deceased is
often mutilated, particularly about the face, so that visual
identification is impossible. Yet, in many cases, the only attempt at
identification is by having persons view the remains and the personal
effects.
The recorded instances of erroneous visual identifications are
numerous. In one case a body, burned beyond recognition, was
identified by relatives as that of a 21-year-old man; yet fingerprints
later proved that the corpse was that of a 55-year-old man.
Fingerprints have frequently been instrumental in establishing the
correct identity of persons killed in airplane crashes and incorrectly
"identified" by close relatives.
In one instance a woman found dead in a hotel room was "positively"
identified by several close friends. The body was shipped to the
father of the alleged deceased in another state where again it was
"identified" by close friends. Burial followed. Approximately one
month later the persons who had first identified the body as that of
their friend were sitting in a tavern when the "dead" woman walked
into the room. Authorities were immediately advised of the error; they
in turn advised the authorities in the neighboring state of the
erroneous identification and steps were taken immediately to rectify
the mistake. After permission had been granted by the State Health
Board to exhume the body of the dead woman, fingerprints were taken
and copies were forwarded to the FBI Identification Division. The
finger impressions were searched through the fingerprint files and the
true identity of the deceased was established.
During a 12-month period, the FBI Identification Division received
the fingerprints of 1,708 unknown dead. Of these, 1,298, or almost 76
percent, were identified. The remaining 410 were not identified simply
because fingerprints of these individuals were not in the FBI files.
It should be noted that in these 1,708 cases, it was possible to
secure legible fingerprints of the deceased in the usual manner by
inking the fingers in those instances in which decomposition had not
injured the ridge detail.
[Illustration: 387. Field equipment for disaster identification.]
In addition to the fingerprints of 1,708 unknown dead, the
Identification Division received the fingers and/or the hands of 85
unknown dead individuals. In these cases, decomposition was so far
advanced that it was not possible to secure inked fingerprints in the
regular manner. Of these, 68 bodies, or 80 percent of the group, were
identified. Of the 17 unidentified, the fingerprints of 14 were not in
the FBI files. In three cases decomposition was so far advanced that
all ridge detail had been destroyed.
In order to emphasize what can be accomplished, it is pointed out that
in those cases in which hands and fingers were submitted, the time
which elapsed from death until the specimens were received ranged from
a week to 3 years. Incredible as it may seem, it has been possible to
secure identifiable impressions 3 years after death.
These statistics of achievement in the field of identifying unknown
dead re-emphasize the fact that in all cases involving the
identification of a deceased person, fingerprints should be used as
the medium for establishing a conclusive and positive identification.
Generally speaking, in the course of their work fingerprint operators
find it necessary to take the impressions of three classes of deceased
persons.
They are:
- Those who have died recently, in which cases the task is
relatively simple.
- Those dead for a longer period, in which cases difficulty
is experienced due to pronounced stiffening of the fingers,
the early stages of decomposition, or both.
- Those cases in which extreme difficulty is encountered
because of maceration, desiccation, or advanced decay of the
skin.
These problems will be considered separately.
_1. Fingerprinting the Newly Dead._
When the fingers are flexible it is often possible to secure inked
fingerprint impressions of a deceased person through the regular
inking process on a standard fingerprint card. Experience has proved
that this task can be made easier if the deceased is laid face down
and palms down on a table (fig. 388).
In all cases where inked impressions are to be made, care should be
exercised to see that the fingers are clean and dry before inking. If
necessary, wash the digits with soap and water and dry thoroughly.
In the event difficulty is encountered in trying to procure
fingerprints by the regular method, it may prove more convenient to
cut the 10 "squares" numbered for the rolled impressions from a
fingerprint card. After the finger is inked, the square is rolled
around the finger without letting it slip. Extreme caution should be
exercised to see that each square bears the correct fingerprint
impression. After all the inked impressions are properly taken, the
ten squares bearing the impressions are pasted or stapled to a
standard fingerprint card in their proper positions, i.e., right
thumb, right index, right middle, etc. Whenever possible the "plain"
or "simultaneous" impressions should also be taken.
In some cases it will be found necessary to obtain or improvise a tool
similar to a broad-bladed putty knife or spatula to be used as an
inking instrument. The ink is rolled evenly and thinly on the knife or
spatula and applied to the finger by passing the inked knife or
spatula around it. The tool, of course, replaces the usual glass
inking slab or plate, the use of which is extremely difficult or
awkward when printing a deceased person.
_2. Fingerprinting the Dead, Where Stiffening of the Fingers and/or
Early Decomposition Are Present._
This second group consists of cases in which the hands of the deceased
are clenched, or the finger tips are wrinkled, or decomposition has
begun, and/or where there are combinations of these three conditions.
Cases of this sort may necessitate cutting off the skin. Legal
authority is necessary before cutting a corpse. Such authority may be
granted by state law or by an official having authority to grant such
a right.
[Illustration: 388]
In cases where rigor mortis (stiffening of the muscles) has set in and
the fingers are tightly clenched, the fingers may be forcibly
straightened by "breaking the rigor." This is done by holding the hand
of the deceased person firmly with one hand, grasping the finger to be
straightened with the four fingers of the other hand and placing the
thumb, which is used as a lever, on the knuckle of the finger and
forcing it straight (fig. 389). The inking tool and "squares," as
previously explained, are then used to secure the fingerprint.
In the event the rigor cannot be completely overcome, it will be most
helpful to improvise or secure a spoon-shaped tool for holding the cut
squares or cut strips while printing the fingers, similar to the tool
mentioned briefly in the discussion of crippled fingers. This tool,
somewhat resembling a gouge without the sharp edge, should have a
handle, a concave end, and a frame or clamp to hold the cardboard
squares or strips. In Figure 390, one type of tool is illustrated.
This tool eliminates the necessity of rolling the deceased's finger,
since the "square" assumes the concave shape of the tool, and the
gentle pressure applied to the inked finger when it is brought in
contact with the square results in a "rolled" impression without
actually rolling the finger.
[Illustration: 389]
Another problem encountered in this second group includes cases in
which the tips of the fingers are fairly pliable and intact, yet due
to the presence of wrinkles in the skin, complete impressions cannot
be obtained. This condition can be corrected by the injection of a
tissue builder, procurable from a dealer in undertaker's supplies. If
this is not available, glycerin or water may be used.
The method is simple. Injection of the tissue builder, glycerin, or
water, is accomplished by the use of a hypodermic syringe. The
hypodermic needle is injected at the joint of the finger up into the
tip of the finger, care being used to keep the needle below the skin
surface (fig. 391). The solution is injected until the finger "bulbs"
are rounded out, after which they are inked and printed.
Occasionally, in stubborn cases, entry of the needle at the joint and
injection of the fluid will not completely fill the finger bulb. It
may be necessary, therefore, to inject the fluid at other points of
the finger such as the extreme tip or sides, until suitable results
are achieved (fig. 392). The tissue builder has a distinct advantage
over glycerin or water, inasmuch as the builder hardens after a short
time and is not lost, whereas glycerin and water sometimes seep out
when pressure is applied in printing. To offset seepage at the point
where the hypodermic needle is injected, whenever possible, tie a
piece of string tightly around the finger just above the point of
entry of the needle.
When the tissue builder is purchased, a solvent for cleaning the
hypodermic syringe and needle should be acquired, inasmuch as the
builder will harden in the syringe and needle.
[Illustration: 390]
[Illustration: 391]
[Illustration: 392]
Those cases in which decomposition in its early stage is present
belong in this group also. Frequently, the outer layer of skin has
begun to peel from the fingers. A careful examination should be made
to determine if the peeling skin is intact or if a part of it has been
lost. If the skin is in one piece, an effort should be made to secure
prints just as though it were attached normally to the finger. Or, if
it is deemed advisable, the skin may be peeled off in one piece,
placed over the finger of the operator, and inked and printed as
though it were his own finger.
Occasionally the first layer of skin is missing. There remains the
dermis or second layer of skin which is also of value for
identification purposes. This second layer would be dealt with as
though it were the outside skin, using the techniques described above.
The ridge detail of the second layer of skin is less pronounced than
that of the outer skin, however, and more attention and care are
needed in order to obtain suitable impressions.
So far this discussion has dealt with the taking of impressions of
fingers when the flesh is fairly firm and the ridge detail intact. A
different problem arises when the fingers are in various stages of
decay. The techniques of treating the fingers in such cases vary
greatly, depending upon the condition of the fingers with respect to
decomposition, desiccation, or maceration.
_3. Fingerprinting the Dead in Difficult Cases._
In cases involving badly decomposed bodies the first thing to do is to
examine the fingers to see if all are present. If they are not, an
effort should be made to determine whether the missing finger or
fingers or even a hand was amputated during the person's lifetime, or
whether the loss was due to other causes such as destruction by animal
or marine life. Deductions from this examination should be noted on
the fingerprint record. This point is made in view of the fact that in
the fingerprint files of the FBI and some police departments, the
fingerprint cards reflecting amputations are filed separately. Noting
amputations may lessen to a great extent a search through the
fingerprint files.
In making the initial examination, attention should be given to the
removal of dirt, silt, grease and other foreign matter from the
fingers. Soap and water are good cleansing agents. So is xylene, a
chemical which will readily clean grease and fatty matter from the
fingers. Good results can be achieved by utilizing a child's
soft-bristled toothbrush in cases where the skin is fairly firm. The
brushing should be done lightly and the strokes should follow the
ridge design in order to clean not only the ridges but the depressions
as well. In the event that the skin is not firm enough to use the
toothbrush, a cotton swab may be used. The fingers should be wiped
very lightly with either soap and water or xylene, always following
the ridge contours.
At this point the fingers are again examined to determine the
condition they are in, based upon the circumstances in which the body
was found. Study and actual experience have shown that there are three
general types of conditions to be considered: Decomposition or
putrefaction, prevalent in bodies found in brush or buried in earth;
desiccation or mummification (that is, dried out), noted in bodies
which have been found in the open (ridge detail not in contact with
the ground) in dry protected places, or bodies subjected to severe
heat; and the group involving maceration (water soaking), which
ordinarily results from being immersed in water.
The degree of decomposition, desiccation, or maceration varies from a
comparatively early stage to an extremely advanced stage. Accordingly,
each case must be considered individually. For example, what is done
successfully in one case of desiccation may not show favorable results
in another. Hence, the techniques outlined below point out generally
what can be done, and has been done, with success.
[Illustration: 393]
When a body is found, the hands usually will be tightly clenched. The
first problem will be to straighten the fingers. If rigor mortis has
set in and an effort to straighten the fingers as previously explained
fails, the difficulty can be overcome easily. Using a scalpel, make a
deep cut at the second joint on the inner side of each of the four
fingers. They can now be straightened with the application of force
(fig. 393). The thumb, if it is cramped or bent, can generally be
straightened by making a deep cut between the thumb and the index
finger. These incisions are made for the obvious purpose of examining
the fingers to determine if there is any ridge detail. Before this
fact can be definitely ascertained it may be necessary to cleanse the
pattern areas with soap and water or xylene, as previously explained.
[Illustration: 394]
_Advanced decomposition_
If the case is one involving decomposition, the operator is confronted
with the problem of dealing with flesh which is rotted or putrefied.
The flesh may be soft or flabby and very fragile. If this is so, an
examination is made of the finger tips to see if the outer skin is
present. If the outer skin is present and intact, it may be possible,
using extreme care, to ink and print in the regular manner. Sometimes,
the outer skin, although present, will be too soft and fragile to ink
and roll in the regular way. In such cases, when the ridge detail is
discernible, the skin, if it is easily removed from the finger, or the
finger itself may be cut off at the second joint and placed in a 10-
to 15-percent solution of formaldehyde for approximately an hour to
harden it. Skin placed in a formaldehyde solution usually turns a
grayish white and becomes firm. However, it will be brittle and may
split if not handled carefully. The skin is placed in the solution
only until it hardens sufficiently, after which it is removed and
carefully wiped dry with a piece of cloth. Then the skin, placed over
the operator's own thumb or index finger and held in place by his
other hand, is inked and rolled as though the operator were printing
his own finger. If a legible print is not obtainable in this manner,
the operator should examine the underside of the skin.
[Illustration: 395]
In many instances, where the ridge detail on the outer surface has
been destroyed or is not discernible, the ridge detail is clearly
visible on the underside (fig. 394). If this is the case, the skin is
inverted (turned inside out) very carefully to prevent splitting or
breaking and then is inked and printed in the usual way. It must be
borne in mind, however, that when the underside of the skin is printed
the resulting impression will be in reverse color and position; that
is, the ink is actually adhering to what would be furrows of the
pattern when viewed from the proper or outer side. If it is deemed
inadvisable to try to invert or turn the skin inside out for fear of
damaging it, a photograph of the inner ridge detail is made and the
negative is printed to give an "as is" position photograph for proper
classification and comparison purposes. In order to secure good
photographs of the ridge detail it may be advisable to trim the skin,
flatten it out between two pieces of glass, and photograph it in that
position (fig. 395).
When the entire finger is placed in the solution during the hardening
process, the skin, in absorbing the formalin solution, may swell and
come loose from the finger. Should this occur, the skin must be
removed carefully and the procedure outlined above followed. If,
however, the skin still adheres to the finger and is not too wrinkled,
ink is applied and prints made. Should the skin be too wrinkled to
secure a satisfactory impression, consideration is given to the
injection of the tissue builder under the skin as previously
mentioned, in order to distend the pattern area. If successful, the
finger is inked and printed. This, of course, can be done only when
the skin is intact.
Should part of the skin be destroyed to the extent that tissue builder
cannot be injected effectively, while examination discloses that the
pattern area is present but wrinkled, cut off the entire pattern area
from the joint to the tip of the finger (fig. 396). Care must be
exercised to insure getting the complete fingerprint pattern as well
as cutting deep enough to avoid injury to the skin.
[Illustration: 396]
After excision, the flesh is carefully and meticulously removed from
the inside by scraping, cutting, and trimming until only the skin
remains, or until the specimen is so thin it can be flattened out to
remove most of the wrinkles. If the skin is fairly pliable, the
operator should attempt to place it over one of his own fingers and
try several prints. If the prints secured are not suitable, the piece
of skin (exert care to avoid breaking or splitting) is flattened out
between two pieces of glass and photographed (figs. 397, 398, 399).
[Illustration: 397. Inked print made from the finger of deceased
before treatment.]
[Illustration: 398. Inked print made after skin was removed and
treated.]
[Illustration: 399. Photograph of ridge detail of skin flattened
between two pieces of glass.]
The foregoing outline covers the procedures followed in cases
involving decomposition in which the outer skin is still present. In
many instances of decomposition the outer skin has been destroyed or
is in such a condition as to be of no value. It must be emphasized
again that the second layer of skin possesses the same ridge detail as
the outer layer and this, though finer and less pronounced, is just as
effective for identification purposes.
If, from examination, it is apparent that the outer layer of skin is
missing and the second layer is intact, the finger should be cleansed,
dried, inked, and printed in the usual manner. If the specimen is
wrinkled but pliable it may be possible to inject tissue builder, as
previously mentioned, to round out the finger, then ink and print it.
Occasionally, some of the outer skin is still attached but is of no
value. This skin should be removed by carefully picking or prying it
off with a scalpel in such a manner as not to destroy or injure the
ridge detail of the second layer. After the outer fragments have been
removed, the second layer is cleaned, inked, and printed. In the event
the resultant impressions are not suitable for classification and
identification purposes, the most likely reason for it is that the
ridge detail is too fine to print even though there are few if any
wrinkles in it. If this is the case, the finger should be cut off at
the second joint and photographed. Should wrinkles which cannot be
removed by injecting tissue builder, and which also preclude the
taking of suitable photographs, be present, the pattern area is cut
off with a scalpel from the first joint to the tip. The flesh is then
cut and scraped out as previously described, until the specimen is
thin enough to flatten out between two pieces of glass which may be
held together by scotch tape. The skin is then photographed.
Occasionally, even after the flattening process it will be noted in
the ground glass of the camera that the skin may be seen plainly but
the ridge detail is very poor. This difficulty may be due to the poor
contrast of the ridges and furrows when using direct lighting. If so,
it can be overcome by scraping the skin to transparency and then
photographing it by transmitted light (i.e., passing light through the
skin). Sometimes, due to the condition of the skin, even though it is
tissue thin, it will not be transparent. This can be overcome by
soaking the skin in xylene for a few minutes and then photographing it
by transmitted light while it is still impregnated with the xylene. If
the substance dries too fast to permit proper photographing, the skin
should be photographed while immersed in the xylene. (See subtopic of
this chapter pertaining to "general photography.") Of course, after
the skin has been photographed the negative should be printed to give
a reverse position so that the print will be comparable with inked
impressions on fingerprint cards.
_Desiccation and charring_
The problem confronting the fingerprint examiner in treating fingers
which are desiccated or dried and shriveled is that of distending and
softening the skin. Desiccated fingers are generally found to have the
outer layer of skin intact and the ridge detail fairly clear. However,
due to the shrinking, numerous wrinkles will be present, and as the
drying process continues the skin and flesh harden until the fingers
become almost as hard as stone.
It is sometimes possible to distend or swell the flesh by utilizing a
1- to 3-percent solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide,
sometimes referred to as caustic potash. As a matter of caution, this
process should be tried with one finger before using it for the
remaining fingers. This point of caution is made because of the
reaction of the potassium or sodium hydroxide, which is actually one
of destruction. While absorption and swelling of the flesh occur, the
disintegrating action of the fluid may result in total destruction of
the flesh.
The finger to be distended is cut from the hand at the second joint
and placed in the hydroxide. When it has resumed its normal size by
the absorption of the solution, it is inked and printed. There is no
set time for this process. The procedure may require a few hours or as
much as several days until suitable results are obtained.
After the finger has been in the solution for about 30 minutes, it
should be removed and examined in order to note the extent of the
swelling and the reaction of the flesh to the solution. If no material
change is noted, the finger is returned to the solution. A close watch
is maintained and the finger is examined from time to time.
The solution may cause thin layers of skin to peel from the finger.
Should this occur, the loose skin is carefully scraped off and the
finger rinsed in water for a few minutes. It is then returned to the
hydroxide for continuation of the process.
If, during the course of an inspection, it is seen that the flesh is
becoming too soft, the finger should be placed in a 1- to 3-percent
solution of formaldehyde or alcohol for several minutes in order to
harden it.
If, after several hours in the hydroxide, the finger has not reached
its normal size, it should be placed in water for an hour or two. This
has a tendency to hasten the swelling. When the finger is removed, it
will be noted that a film has coated the surface. This coating is
carefully scraped off and the finger is replaced in the hydroxide
solution for an hour or so, again scraped if coated, soaked in clean
water, etc. This process of alternating from solution to water,
scraping, and replacing in hydroxide is continued until desirable
results are obtained. The finger is then inked and printed.
The above process will so saturate the finger with solution that it
may be too wet to print properly. Accordingly, the finger may be
dipped into acetone for several seconds, removed, and be permitted to
dry, after which it is inked and printed.
The complete process may take from several hours to as much as 10 days
to secure suitable results. If the final results of the above
procedure are satisfactory with the one finger being tested, the
remaining fingers are given the same treatment. Care must be taken to
identify each finger properly as to right index, right middle, etc.,
to avoid any mixup.
In the event that the reaction of the solution on the first finger
treated is not satisfactory and the operator feels that it would be
futile to continue the process, the finger should be removed from the
solution immediately, washed carefully in water, and placed in
formaldehyde to harden sufficiently for it to be handled without
causing injury to the ridges. The pattern area is cut off in such a
manner that sufficient surrounding surface permits the skin to be
trimmed. Then from the cut side the skin is carefully scraped and cut
to remove the excess flesh. While the cutting and scraping are being
done, from time to time the skin should be soaked in xylene and
massaged for purposes of softening to remove wrinkles. When the skin
is thin enough and sufficiently pliable, the operator places the skin
on his own finger, inks and prints it in the usual manner.
If the results are satisfactory, the same procedure is followed with
the remaining fingers. In the event the resultant inked prints are not
suitable, the skin should be scraped until it is sufficiently thin to
be flattened between two pieces of glass and photographed.
Here again it is pointed out that should there be a poor contrast
between the ridges and furrows when using direct lighting, the skin is
scraped as thin as possible without tearing and it is then
photographed by transmitted light.
There are also included, as cases of desiccation, bodies which have
been burned or subjected to severe heat. Often there are cases where
the skin has become loose but is hard and crisp, or where the finger
has been severely burned and is reduced almost to carbon, yet is firm.
In these instances the ridge detail usually has not been destroyed.
When a body which has been severely burned is located, the problems of
identification should be anticipated. Accordingly, before the body is
removed, a careful examination of the fingers should be made in order
to determine if the removal would, in any way, cause damage to the
fingers. Should it be felt that because of the condition of the body
removal would cause injury to the ridge detail, securing of
fingerprints at the scene, or possibly the cutting off of the hands or
fingers to avoid destruction of the skin, should be considered. An
examination of the fingers may disclose that the outer skin is
hardened and is partially loosened from the flesh. It is sometimes
possible, by twisting back and forth, to remove this outer skin
intact. If this is done, the operator may place the skin on his own
finger, ink and print in the usual way.
If the skin is intact on the finger and is not wrinkled, of course
there is no problem and the usual method is employed to secure
impressions.
Should wrinkles be present and the skin pliable, tissue builder is
injected into the bulbs, which are then inked and printed.
In the event the wrinkles cannot be removed in this fashion, the
pattern area is cut off and the excess flesh scraped out as before.
While the scraping and cutting are being accomplished, the skin should
be soaked and massaged in xylene to soften. The skin is then placed on
the operator's finger, inked and printed. Should prints made in this
manner be unsatisfactory, the next recourse is photography.
In some instances the fingers of burned bodies will be charred. Such
cases require very careful handling as there is a probability of
destroying or disturbing the ridge detail through mistreatment. In
these instances the procedure is determined by the degree of charring.
In extreme cases the only method of recording is by photographing,
using side lighting to secure the proper contrast of ridges and
depressions. Obviously, no attempt should be made to ink and roll as
the pressure necessary to secure the prints would cause the skin to
crumble.
In instances where the charring has not reached the extreme stage the
procedures previously set forth should be applied; that is, treatment
of the skin by cleaning, softening, inking and printing, or, finally,
by photographing (fig. 400).
[Illustration: 400. Photograph of charts used in actual case to
establish the identity of a charred body, victim of murder. Chart A
shows skin removed from one of the fingers treated and photographed.
Chart B shows an inked impression of the same finger during victim's
life.]
_Water-soaked fingers_
The third and final type of case which may confront the identification
officer concerns the problem of maceration, that is, long immersion of
the fingers in water.
One of the cardinal rules for securing legible impressions is that the
fingers must be dry. Accordingly, in these cases it becomes a matter
of drying the fingers in addition to contending with other
difficulties. Usually the skin on the fingers absorbs water, swells
and loosens from the flesh within a few hours after immersion.
If an examination discloses the skin to be water-soaked, wrinkled and
pliable, but intact, the first step is to cleanse the skin carefully
as previously described. Next, wipe the fingertip with alcohol,
benzine or acetone, waiting a few seconds for it to dry. The skin is
pulled or drawn tight across the pattern area so that a large wrinkle
is formed on the back of the finger, then the bulb is inked and
printed.
If the skin is broken and hanging loose, but its pattern area is
intact, it should be removed from the finger, cleansed and placed in
alcohol or benzine (not acetone) for about a minute, then stretched
carefully over the operator's finger so as to remove any wrinkles. It
may then be printed.
Sometimes the skin is intact on the finger but so wrinkled and hard
that it is not possible to draw it tight for inking. In this case it
may be advisable to inject tissue builder to round out the bulbs for
inking and printing. Should this fail, the ridge detail is
photographed on the finger; or the skin is cut off, flattened between
two pieces of glass and then photographed. Here, again, it must be
pointed out that when the ridge detail does not show on the surface of
the outer skin the underside should be examined, for many times the
detail can be seen clearly. Should this be true, of course, the
underside is photographed.
In cases where it is noted that the outer skin is gone and the finger
is not saturated with water, it is possible to dry the surface
sufficiently for inking and printing purposes by rolling the finger on
a blotter. If this fails, the finger is wiped off with a piece of
cloth which has been saturated with alcohol, benzine or acetone, after
which it may be inked and printed.
_Drying the fingers_
In many instances it will be found that the outer skin is gone and the
fingers themselves are saturated with water. A quick method of drying
out the fingers is to place them in full strength acetone for
approximately 30 minutes. The fingers are then placed in xylene for
about an hour or until the xylene has overcome the reaction of the
acetone. After removal from the xylene the fingers should be placed on
a blotter until the surface of the fingers appears dry. They are then
ready to be inked and printed.
It will be noted in this procedure that when the fingers are removed
from the acetone they dry and harden in a matter of seconds. The
purpose of the xylene is to resoften the fingers. After this
treatment, should the resulting inked impressions be unsuitable for
classification purposes, the ridge detail should be photographed.
_X-ray photography_
The use of X-ray photographs (radiography) has been advocated by some
for purposes of recording the ridge details in decomposed, desiccated,
or macerated cases. Briefly, the procedure involves the covering of
the fingers with heavy salts such as bismuth or lead carbonate, in a
thin, even film over the pattern area and then, by the use of the
X-ray, reproducing the ridge detail. This procedure necessitates the
use of X-ray equipment and a technician skilled in making radiographs.
It is, therefore, an expensive operation. The results of the
radiograph in no way compensate for the expense, time, and skill
required inasmuch as in those cases where many wrinkles and creases
appear in the fingers, especially desiccated specimens, the results
have been very poor. In instances where there are no wrinkles or only
a few, and where the creases are not too deep, the ridge detail is
reproduced very well in the radiograph. In these cases, however, it is
usually possible to secure impressions by inking and rolling in the
regular way or, should this fail, ordinary photography will certainly
give satisfactory results. For economical and practical purposes the
use of the X-ray is not recommended.
_General photography_
In the foregoing instances in which it has been impossible to obtain
suitable inked impressions it will be noted that the last resort has
always been photography. In all probability in advanced cases of
decomposition, desiccation, and maceration it may not be possible to
secure inked impressions which can be properly classified. Hence, it
will be necessary to photograph the ridge detail. Accordingly, there
are outlined below several methods of photographing the ridges which
have been used with success.
In photographing the ridge detail on fingers it has been determined to
be most practicable to photograph the finger natural, or 1/1, size
inasmuch as comparisons will usually be made with inked impressions
which are natural size. Any camera built or adjusted to taking 1/1
size pictures, and with which the lighting may be arranged to best
advantage, may be used.
There is a wide choice of film which can be used for this purpose. The
so-called soft films are all good for photographing ridge detail on
fingers. Process film is not recommended inasmuch as the film presents
too much of a contrast. Consequently, if it is used, some of the ridge
detail will be lost, especially if wrinkles are present in the skin.
Lighting is accomplished by the use of gooseneck lamps, floodlights,
or a spotlight. If a fingerprint camera is used, its lights may be
sufficient.
The manner of lighting may be by direct light, side light, transmitted
light or reflected light, depending upon the prevailing condition of
the finger or skin.
Direct light is used in those cases in which the ridge detail is
fairly clear and there are no wrinkles present; or, if wrinkles are
present, they are not deep enough to interfere with photographing the
ridges.
Side lighting is used when there are no wrinkles of any consequence
and the ridge detail is clear but because of discoloration the ridges
are not readily seen in the ground glass as there is lack of contrast
between ridges and depressions. Accordingly, the lights, instead of
being focused directly on the skin or finger, are placed to the side
of the object so that the light is directed across the skin or finger,
thus highlighting the ridges and shading the depressions.
In side lighting, two lights may be used. Better results are often
obtained, however, by using only one light, such as a spotlight, the
beam of which can be controlled to best advantage.
Transmitted light is used in cases in which the skin has peeled off or
in which the dermis has been removed, cut, and scraped thin so that
light will go through. The prepared skin is placed between two pieces
of glass pressed together in order to flatten the skin or dermis and
remove creases. By trimming some of the surplus skin or dermis,
especially at the top, it may be more easily flattened. After the
glass is properly mounted in front of the camera, the lights are
placed behind it and light is directed through the skin. The ridge
detail is brought into focus on the ground glass. Before the picture
is actually taken it is suggested that the ground glass be checked by
first using one light and then two lights to see which is more
effective.
There will be instances in which the second layer of skin, cut and
scraped thin enough to flatten out, fails when dry to have a
sufficient contrast between ridges and depressions for purposes of
photographing. The same piece of skin when soaked in xylene will show
a marked contrast, which it loses on drying. This difficulty is
overcome by photographing the skin while in solution, which can be
done by placing the skin in a test tube or a small bottle of a size to
keep the skin upright and the ridges toward the camera. The test tube
or bottle is then filled with xylene.
If the skin is sufficiently thin, transmitted light may be used.
Should it be found, however, that transmitted light is not effective,
then direct light may be tried and the results checked in the ground
glass (fig. 401).
When photographing a small curved surface such as a test tube, direct
lighting will usually create a high light. If the high light as shown
in the ground glass is over the ridge detail on the skin, a poor
photograph will result. If the high light cannot be removed by
rearranging the lights, then reflected light should be tried.
In order to effect reflected light a large piece of white paper,
cardboard, or similar material is used. A hole is cut in the center of
the paper or cardboard. This must be big enough for the camera lens to
protrude through. The ends of the paper or board are curved toward the
skin or finger to be photographed. The lamps which are to be used are
placed facing the curved paper or cardboard in such fashion that the
light will strike the paper or board and be reflected by the curved
surface to the object.
The lamps should be close enough to the paper or board to give the
maximum light. Care should be exercised, however, not to place them
too close, because of the fire hazard.
Any arrangement of lamps and reflectors giving a similar effect as the
above should prove suitable.
Fingers or skin which have a mottled, reddish-brown color because of
decomposition, exposure to severe heat, or diffusion with blood
present a problem of lack of contrast between ridges and depressions
for photographic purposes. This lack of contrast can be overcome to a
large extent by the use of a yellow or light red filter. Sometimes, in
those cases where the discoloration is due to the diffusion of blood
throughout the tissues, the blood can be washed out by saturating and
rinsing the specimen in a 10- to 20-percent solution of citric acid.
If, of course, the blood is not removed satisfactorily, the
photographing should be done with the filter.
[Illustration: 401]
As previously stated, the fingerprint camera can be readily adapted to
the use of photographing fingers or skin specimens for ridge detail.
Sometimes it is possible to photograph the skin or finger in the same
manner as one does a latent print. There will be instances, however,
in which the standard use of the fingerprint camera will not be
possible or effective, such as for side light, reflected light, and
sometimes transmitted light, or instances in which it is not possible
to get the finger or skin flush with the opening of the camera. In
these instances the lights of the camera are not used, so the
batteries should be removed and gooseneck lamps or other suitable
lighting equipment and ground glass utilized when the finger or skin
is prepared for photographing (fig. 402).
The camera is opened either at the point where the lights are housed
or at the lens point, whichever is most effective. Then, opening the
shutter, the operator moves the camera either toward or away from the
finger or skin to the point where the ridge detail is sharpest in the
ground glass. The camera is held firmly, the ground glass is removed,
the film is inserted and the photograph taken.
[Illustration: 402]
With respect to exposure time, it is possible only to generalize and
point out that each case will have its own individual aspects.
Controlling features for consideration will be the type of film, the
type and size of lights, the method of lighting (direct, side,
transmitted or reflected) and also whether or not filters are used.
Accordingly, there may be a wide variation of exposure time in
different cases.
The best approach for arriving at the proper exposure time is merely
to make a test exposure, develop the film, and from an examination
determine if it is underexposed or overexposed. Time the next exposure
accordingly, until satisfactory results are obtained.
As has been mentioned previously, when photographing the ridges on
fingers or skin, the ridge detail will be in reverse position, the
opposite from an inked impression made from the same skin or finger.
(This is true except in those cases in which the underside of the
epidermis is photographed.) Accordingly, when the negative is
printed, it should be printed gloss side to sensitive side of paper to
give the position comparable to an inked print made from the same skin
or finger. In order to avoid error or confusion a notation should be
made on the photograph of each finger, or, if they are cut and mounted
on a fingerprint card, point out that the position has been reversed
and that the prints are in their correct position for classifying and
searching. Otherwise, it is possible that the right hand may be
mistaken for the left hand and vice versa.
If the underside of the epidermis or outer skin is being photographed,
the negative should be printed in the normal manner, that is, emulsion
side of negative to sensitized side of paper. Here, reversal of
position is not necessary for when the ridge detail is viewed from the
underside it appears to be in the same position as the inked
impression normally is reflected on a fingerprint card.
Care should be taken to see that each photograph is labeled correctly
to indicate the finger it represents, such as right thumb, right
index, right ring, etc. It is imperative that no error occurs in such
labeling, inasmuch as it is highly probable that the resultant
classification would be incorrect and failure to make an
identification might very easily follow.
_Deceased infants_
The foregoing has dealt with the securing of fingerprints of unknown
deceased persons for identification purposes. The basis for such
action is the presumptive possibility that the unknowns had been
fingerprinted previously and through this medium might be identified.
Another type of problem, however, arises with the finding of a
deceased infant. It can be safely assumed that the possibility of
there being in existence a set of known fingerprints of the infant is
extremely remote. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that many
hospitals throughout the country, as part of the general routine of
recording a birth, secure the infant's footprints, it would follow
that there could be a remote possibility of identifying the deceased
infant through its footprints. The foregoing principles and procedures
would then apply in securing the foot impression of a deceased infant.
It is fully realized that in practically all cases involving the
finding of an abandoned infant corpse the infant is probably
illegitimate issue and delivery did not occur in a hospital, but there
have been instances where such was not the case.
The importance of securing footprints of deceased infants killed in a
common disaster cannot be overemphasized. Such disasters may involve
the death of infants of lawful issue, and in many instances there are
hospital footprint records available which may prove of value as a
positive means of identification.
_Technical consideration_
The methods described are intended to record, either by printing with
ink or by photographing as legibly as possible, the ridge details of
the tips of the fingers of unknown dead for identification purposes.
The securing of the impressions enables the fingerprint examiner to
classify and search them through a file. This "search," of course,
means merely to make a comparison of the deceased's prints with the
prints of known individuals.
It is well to bear in mind the fact that the dermis or epidermis may
have undergone certain physical changes and that in order for the
fingerprint examiner to make a proper comparison he must know the
changes which can and do occur. Otherwise, he may fail to make an
identification (fig. 403).
[Illustration: 403. Epidermis or outer layer of skin commencing to
peel from dermis or second layer of skin, result of decomposition.]
Consider first the epidermis or outer layer of skin in cases of
maceration (the skin is water soaked). There may be considerable
swelling. The ridges become broader and are more distinct. An inked
impression in such an instance may show a pattern larger in area than
a print made from the same finger when the person was alive. Also, if
the skin is on the finger but is loose, inking and rolling could
distort the impression so that some of the ridge formations would seem
to be in a different alignment from corresponding details in a print
made during life. When decomposition commences, what are really solid
ridges may be broken, giving rise to the possibility that there appear
to be more characteristics than there actually are (figs. 404 and
405).
[Illustration: 404. Inked fingerprint made during life.]
[Illustration: 405. Inked impression of same finger of deceased
showing effect of decomposition.]
The existence of wrinkles may also cause the impression to acquire an
appearance of dissimilarity when compared with the original inked
print.
With respect to cases of desiccation, there will probably be
shrinkage, hence, the impressions made may appear smaller than in life
and the ridges will be finer. In cases in which the epidermis has been
lost and there remains only the dermis or second layer, there will
usually be shrinkage with the same results. Here also, wrinkles, if
present, may cause a difference in appearance from the normal print.
[Illustration: 406]
In addition to shrinkage and wrinkles in cases involving the second
layer of skin, there is a radical change in the appearance of the
ridges themselves. The second or dermal layer of skin is composed of
what are called dermal papillae which have the appearance of minute
blunt pegs or nipples. The dermal papillae are arranged in double rows
(fig. 406). Each double row lies deep in a ridge of the surface or
epidermal layer and presents the same variations of ridge
characteristics as are on the outer layer of skin except that they are
double. Accordingly, when the second layer of skin is printed or
photographed, the ridge detail will appear in double. That is, the
ridges will appear as though they were split. This may well confuse
the fingerprint examiner in that what may be a loop having 10 ridge
counts may appear to be a loop having 20 ridge counts when the
impression is made from the second or dermal layer of skin. These
double rows of ridges are finer and not as sharp as the detail on the
outer skin, which adds to the difficulty of arriving at a correct
classification and making a proper comparison.
_FBI aid_
The above techniques and procedures have been dealt with upon the
basis that the law enforcement officers would, when a corpse has been
found, attempt to secure a set of finger impressions in an effort to
identify the unknown dead. If, however, the officer feels that the job
is too difficult or is beyond his scope, consideration should be given
to cutting off the hands or fingers of the deceased and forwarding
them to the Identification Division of the FBI for processing. If this
course is decided upon, it is reiterated that local statutes governing
the cutting of the dead must be complied with and proper authorization
must be secured.
[Illustration: 407]
In order to facilitate the transmission of such specimens to the FBI
the following suggestions are made:
First, it is deemed most desirable, when possible, to have both of the
hands, severed at the wrist, forwarded in their entirety (fig. 407).
It is desired that the hands, rather than each separate finger, be
sent inasmuch as it eliminates the possibility of getting the fingers
mixed up or incorrectly labeled. If, however, it is not possible to
send the hands for some reason, then, of course, the fingers should be
cut off and forwarded. In cutting, the fingers should be cut off at
the palm beginning with the right thumb, then the right index, ring,
etc., just as though they were to be printed. As soon as each finger
is cut off it should be placed in an individual container, such as a
small glass jar, and immediately marked as to which particular finger
it is.
In the event that the hands or fingers of more than one dead are being
transmitted, it is absolutely necessary that not only the fingers be
properly labeled but that each body also be given an identifying
number or symbol which must be indicated on the hands or fingers cut
from that body as well, in order to avoid the embarrassing situation
of identifying the hands and not knowing from which body they were
cut.
In shipping, the hands, fingers, or skins may be placed in preserving
solutions such as 5-percent solution of formaldehyde, 5-percent
solution of alcohol, or embalming fluid. When hands or fingers are
desiccated (dried out), however, it is most desirable that they be
placed in airtight containers and sent without any preservative. If
glass containers are used, the specimens should be packed in such a
manner as to avoid breakage. Dry ice is a suitable preservative for
transmitting such specimens but it should not be used when shipping
will take more than 24 hours.
In making up a package using dry ice, the hands or fingers, properly
tagged, should be placed in cellophane or paper bags. A material such
as sawdust, shavings or similar packing which acts as an insulation is
placed around the specimens. A sufficient amount of dry ice is then
placed in the package which is then packed tight with more sawdust or
shavings. The dry ice should not be in direct contact with the
cellophane or paper bags which contain the hands or fingers.
A letter covering transmittal of the specimens should be prepared in
duplicate. It should, of course, indicate the sender. The names of any
probable victims, sex, race and approximate age of the deceased
should, if such information is available, be secured from the coroner
or medical examiner and be included in the letter. A copy of the
letter should be placed in the package. The original should be mailed
separately. Both letter and package should be addressed as follows:
DIRECTOR
FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
Attention: Identification Division--Latent Fingerprint Section.
If the package contains glass jars it should be marked "Fragile" to
insure careful handling in transit.
The package should be sent railway express, prepaid, or, where there
is need for speed, by air express, prepaid. When they are received by
the Identification Division, the specimens will undergo various
treatments which may necessitate further cutting, scraping, etc. In
all cases, regardless of condition, the specimens will be returned
after examination.
All of the foregoing matter has dealt with instances in which it has
been assumed that all ten fingers are available, or a sufficient
number of the fingers of a deceased have been secured and impressions
suitable for searching through the fingerprint files of the FBI have
been recorded.
There will be cases, however, where only a few, or possibly only one,
of the fingers has sufficient ridge detail for identification. In such
instances a search through the FBI files would be impractical. This,
however, does not preclude the possibility of making a positive
identification by the use of the one finger. Though a search through
the file is not possible, a comparison can be made with the
fingerprints of individuals who it is thought the deceased may be or,
in some instances, with the fingerprints of missing persons.
In this connection, where one or only a few fingers are forwarded to
the FBI, the names of all possible victims should also be submitted.
The fingerprints of those individuals, if available, will then be
taken out of file and compared with the ridge detail on the finger of
the deceased in an endeavor to establish a positive identification.
Many such identifications have been effected.
In conjunction with the usual services afforded authorized law
enforcement agencies, the services of an FBI fingerprint expert are
also made available in those cases where expert testimony is necessary
to establish the identity of the deceased through fingerprints,
providing, of course, such an identification has been made.
Extreme caution should be exercised in the case of the chemicals
previously mentioned in this article. Acetone, alcohol, benzine, and
xylene are highly inflammable and should neither be used near open
flames nor while the operator is smoking. The fumes given off by
acetone, benzine, xylene, and formaldehyde are toxic and may cause
sickness. They should be used in a well-ventilated room only. It is
also suggested that the fingerprint examiner wear rubber gloves when
using acetone, benzine, xylene, formaldehyde, potassium hydroxide, or
sodium hydroxide. These chemicals will cause the skin to peel. Strong
concentrations may cause burns.
In conclusion, it is pointed out that the procedures and techniques
which have been described are those currently being used by the
fingerprint experts of the FBI. These methods are fast and the results
have been most satisfactory. This Bureau does not claim, however, that
satisfactory results cannot be achieved through variations thereof or
different methods.