SALOPIAN WORKS, CAUGHLEY.
The Salopian Porcelain Works were founded by Thomas Turner, of Caughley
Place, who had been employed in the Worcester factory, and becoming
manager of the pottery works at Caughley, near Broseley, in 1772. To
him are attributed the famous “willow pattern,” the “Nankin” and the
“blue dragon,” and the production of the beautiful and distinguishing
dark blue colour; Thomas Minton, of Stoke, assisted in the completion
of the “Nankin,” being an articled engraver at Caughley. Of Turner
the Messrs. John Rose bought the factory in 1799, and in 1814-15 it
was broken up. This was a grievous loss, as the porcelain produced
there was remarkable for the brilliancy of its glaze, the fineness of
its substance, and the beauty of its blue colour. The name “Salopian”
indicates its origin, but several other marks of very elaborate
designs were employed, being a series of Arabic numerals, as here
given, although some slight varieties are noticeable in the different
illustrations published.
[Illustration]
COALPORT AND COLEBROOK DALE.
John Rose, an apprentice of Thomas Turner, of Caughley, Salop, was
also the founder of the Coalport and Colebrook Dale, Shropshire,
manufactories, and after a time, having purchased the Caughley plant,
he united the latter with Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw factories;
the paste of Coalport was a combination, and “felspar porcelain” was
produced. Turner’s “willow” and “blue dragon” designs were again
resuscitated to a great extent, and various sprig patterns, copied from
Chelsea, Dresden and Sèvres porcelain, as well as bearing their marks.
Besides these latter, the names and initial letters of the original
factories are found on the early examples, and the more recent bear the
marks next here following.
[Illustration]
The letters “C. B. D.” in monogram, “C. D.” and “C. Dale” stand for
Colebrook Dale, and the Coalport mark is simply its name in writing
hand. There are other marks that cannot be omitted in the series, such
as the name “Salopian” in capitals, in small _roms._; the name “Turner”
in capitals; the letter “S” in blue stands for “Salopian” (an early
mark); the letters “So S” and “Sx.” Also, the crescent surmounting the
name “Salopian,” the former in blue and the latter impressed only. One
other mark may be named, a dot, and an “S” surmounting the crossed
swords.
[Illustration]
(THE STAFFORDSHIRE WORKS--SHELTON NEW HALL.)
The porcelain manufacture was introduced into the Staffordshire
potteries in 1777 on the purchase of Champion’s patent, obtained by
him from Cookworthy, of Plymouth. The New Hall Works, Shelton, built
by Whitehead, produced hard porcelain, much like that of Bristol. The
blue tea-ware was in hard paste, with the “willow pattern,” and having
Champion’s mark under the glaze, was made in this factory by Turner.
Some seventeen or twenty celebrated manufacturers were connected
with the Shelton China Works at the “New Hall.” One of these was the
celebrated Josiah Spode, who in 1784 took the factory from Banks and
Turner, and was in his turn succeeded by his son, J. Spode, junior.
This latter introduced soft felspar and bones into the Staffordshire
porcelain. Turner junior was followed by Copeland, and Garrett, Thomas
Minton and his son, Herbert. Hard paste was introduced into the
Staffordshire china by the latter. The second Josiah Spode was the
most successful porcelain manufacturer of his time, and the new parish
church at Stoke was mainly built and decorated by him. He contributed
to it the best porcelain, jasper ware, patent stone pottery, and
blue-painted ditto to beautify it.
Mr. William Copeland was his partner, and the exquisite Parian biscuit
china or Parian Carrara was carried to the utmost perfection by him.
The firm of Josiah Spode and William Copeland, and then Copeland and
Garrett, is now known as “Copeland and Sons.”
The Spode china bore the maker’s name, painted or impressed, and
surmounted by a crown and inscribed between the branches. Later on it
bore “Copeland and Garrett,” or two C’s interlaced; also “Saxon Blue”
and “New Blanche.”
The _pâte sur pâte_, or “slip painting,” was brought to great
perfection by M. Solon, the principal artist employed by Messrs.
Minton, as well as Mr. Toft.
Josiah Wedgwood’s nephew, Thomas Brierly, introduced the soft paste
porcelain at Etruria in 1808; but it was not of long existence. The
examples to be seen are decorated with landscapes, birds, and flowers,
and are, for the most part, distinguished with the name “Wedgwood”
coloured red.
The early marks on Minton’s porcelain are the following (the special
mark of Solon Miles being the most ornate)--
[Illustration]
Specimens of the earths, clay, stone, sand, etc., were placed in Josiah
Wedgwood’s hands by a Mr. Bradley Blake, a resident at Canton, such as
employed at Nankin for porcelain. And Wedgwood produced very excellent
examples, but he never manufactured this china ware for commerce,
although his nephew, Thomas Brierly, did, in 1808, at Etruria. For
himself he was a potter, and it was for beautiful varieties of this
ware that the famous Flaxman worked designs for him.
The names of Ridgway and Sons, and Heath, Warburton, Clowes, Hollins,
and Daniel, are well known in connection with the New Hall China Works
at Shelton. But during a course of many years and many successions of
proprietorship, there is little space for lists of names in a brief
article.
I may here observe that when the Derby works began to decline,
after 1825, many highly efficient workmen joined the factory at
Stoke-upon-Trent, founded by Turner and rendered illustrious by Spode.
Thus the artistic work of the Staffordshire factory at Stoke was
greatly improved.
Up to the year 1798 the Stoke manufactures were chiefly restricted to
white ware decorated with blue, like ordinary Nankin. The factory was
first established in 1790 by Thomas Minton, who had been an apprentice
of Thomas Turner (of Caughley) as an engraver, and had then worked for
Spode; and in 1788 he settled at Stoke.
The next year he took Joseph Poulson into partnership--the late manager
for Spode--and from the year 1793 to 1800 he continued to be a joint
manager and proprietor. He died in 1809, when Thomas Minton carried on
the business alone. Mr. Minton’s second son, Herbert, succeeded him.
John Boyle was his partner for some years, and was succeeded by Daintry
Hollins and Mr. Colin Minton Campbell, his nephews. After his death
they owned the business.
Steele, Bancroft and Handcock were Minton’s most distinguished
painters, and John Simpson was his chief enamel painter of figures and
of all the work of the highest class.
M. Solon-Milès, from Sèvres, began work for him in 1870; and to the
latter we owe the application of _engobe_ (white slip) on celadon
grounds, toned chocolate, grey, and green, which is known as _pâte sur
pâte_--originally a Chinese invention of some centuries old. Solon’s
monogram, or “Solon” or “Miles” are sometimes found on his work. The
other three given were Minton’s early marks. The ermine surmounting his
name has been employed since the year 1851--painted in colours or in
gold or else indented.
[Illustration]
Some services were produced in Felspar china, decorated with oriental
flowers and birds. They were distinguished by a scroll in violet,
enclosing a number in red, and below this the mark, “M. & B. Felspar
Porcelain.”
[Illustration]
NANTGARW CHINA.
The factory of Nantgarw was a small one, founded in 1813, by
Billingsley & Walker, at some ten or a dozen miles from Cardiff. The
former had been an apprentice to Duesbury, of Derby, and had had
great experience, having been in partnership with Coke at Pinxton,
then acting as manager at Mansfield, working afterwards at Torksey,
Lincolnshire, then at Bristol, and serving under Flight & Barr at
Worcester, prior to his founding the manufactory at Nantgarw. In 1820,
eight years before the death of Billingsley, John Rose, of Coalport,
purchased the plant, Billingsley and Walker going into his service.
The marks on the Nantgarw porcelain were either in red or impressed,
as illustrated. The paste employed was exceedingly soft and fine
in texture; the vases, with beautiful handles and covers, the table
services and plaques were painted with landscapes, birds, insects,
and flowers. At one time Mortlock (of London) purchased Billingsley’s
porcelain in white and decorated and fired it himself. The extreme
softness and vitreous fracture of the paste identifies it as of
Nantgarw when the mark is lacking. Two other marks of this factory may
be given. The name is in capital letters, either painted in red, or
more usually impressed, and the second is in red. Sometimes the letters
“C.W.” are found impressed underneath the name of the factory, which
is supposed to mean “China Works.” Billingsley is supposed to have
produced an excellent dessert service painted in flowers which is now
the property of Mr. Firbank, M.P.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
THE ROCKINGHAM PORCELAIN--SWINTON, YORKS.
[Illustration]
The Rockingham factory was originally established for earthenware; but
Thomas Brameld introduced the manufacture of the finest description
of porcelain in the year 1820 or 1823, collecting his materials from
Cornwall, Dorset, Sussex, and Kent. His dessert, dinner, and breakfast
sets, and his ornamental pieces and figures, all highly decorated,
were of first-class excellence. The mark usually employed--adopted in
1828--was the Rockingham crest--a Griffin--the Swinton Works being
on the estate of Charles, Marquis of Rockingham, together with an
inscription giving the name of the factory, and of Brameld--himself
a painter on porcelain. The mark was in red. In 1826 they became
embarrassed, no expense having been spared on the manufacture of
the finest work; but they were kept open through the assistance of
Earl Fitzwilliam until 1842. In some examples of the Rockingham china
(preserved in the Scheiber collection) the mark varies to “Royal Rock
Works, Brameld,” and the words “Manufacturers to the King” below the
crest; also the name “Brameld” is sometimes enclosed in an oval design.
Some genuine Rockingham ware is unmarked; some have incised marks such
as “No. 22,” and “No. 31,” also “Brameld,” giving the batons and dots
in addition.
[Illustration: BRAMELD.]
There is a splendid specimen of this china to be seen in the South
Kensington Museum--a highly decorated vase standing four feet high, and
fired in a single piece, also having three handles, representing gold
oak-branches, and the whole standing on three lions’ paws, a rhinoceros
surmounting the lid or cover. The painter, Isaac Baguley, took over
some part of this factory, Speight, Cordon, and Lucas being amongst the
chief painters employed.
BELLECK WHITE PORCELAIN.
The factory at Belleck, County Fermanagh, Ireland, was established
by Messrs. Armstrong and McBirney in 1856-7, and the porcelain was
produced from the Felspar clays on the estate of J. C. Bloomfield,
Esq. The use of salts of bismuth, resin, and oil of lavender produced
the lustrous glaze for which this ware is remarkable, and the colours
obtained from metallic oxides. So unique is this porcelain that no mark
is required to identify it; but there is one stencilled or painted upon
it in brown, green, or red, and the design is a round tower, a harp,
shamrock, and greyhound--the former three being characteristic emblems
of the country--but I do not know the origin of the latter. Perhaps
it is the crest of the Bloomfields of Fermanagh, on whose estate the
felspar was found.
[Illustration]
ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
MEDICAL.
TROUBLED ONE.--Yours is a complaint which often causes great uneasiness
to girls of your age. It is usually of very little import, and its
greatest harm results, not from the condition itself, but from the
patient’s fixed idea that she is suffering from some serious ailment.
Almost anything can cause it. Indigestion and anæmia are among the most
common causes. You will probably find that carefully treating your
indigestion will cure your trouble. A short course of iron, if your
digestion will stand it, will do you good.
KANOWNA.--Try washing your face with warm water and sulphur soap. A
very little sulphur ointment applied to your face at night-time will
help you.
S. D.--1. Yes; vaseline is not a bad preparation for the hair. It is
rather messy, and does not suit some persons’ hair. As regards the
question, “How often should you wash your hair?” it depends a good deal
upon yourself and the condition of your hair. If the hair is quite
healthy, it need not be washed more often than once a month.--2. Simply
a curiosity. It means nothing.
MAVIS.--Read our advice to “Troubled One.” Of course, in a case like
that of your friend, the question of a local cause for her symptoms
must be considered. A course of iron, or of iron with some astringent,
such as aromatic sulphuric acid is often of extreme value when the
annoyance is due to constitutional causes. When taking iron in any
form, constipation must be carefully guarded against.
ANXIOUS TOPSY.--Drinking excessively does cause profuse perspiration.
But profuse perspiration produces excessive thirst; so that it is
difficult to say which is the cause and which the effect. People who
perspire freely should avoid tea and coffee, as these stimulate the
sweat glands. They should wash in warm (not hot) water, and sponge
over those parts which perspire most profusely with toilet vinegar
and water. When the hands and feet are the members chiefly at fault,
a powder consisting of one part of salicylic acid to ninety-nine
parts of powdered silica may be dusted inside the gloves and socks.
When the face perspires more freely than the other parts of the body,
sulphur soap should be used to wash with, or the face may be bathed
occasionally in toilet vinegar and water.
MURIEL.--We see alas! that constant repetition is forced upon us in
this column. One would have thought that every one of our readers had
by this time grasped the chief points in the treatment of chronic
indigestion. But we see that we are mistaken! And that we must repeat
time after time. Well, here is the treatment of indigestion in a
nutshell! We can divide indigestion into three grades of severity.
First, those forms which need merely a few hints about diet; secondly,
those forms in which a considerable amount of care must be taken,
but which do not completely incapacitate the sufferers; and thirdly,
the most serious cases which require great skill on the part of the
physician and the patient to keep the latter from starvation. It is
to those suffering from the second of these grades that the following
remarks are addressed. As regards diet and eating. Take three, four,
or five meals a day; but let them be _small_ meals, and the intervals
between them of nearly equal time. Eat very slowly; masticate properly.
Give twenty bites to each mouthful of solid food. Never eat in a
hurry or bolt your food. Sit down and do nothing for at least half
an hour after each meal. Avoid pastry, cheese, potatoes, the coarser
vegetables, pork, veal, made dishes (except such as are very simple),
liver, kidneys, goose, duck, and sweet puddings. Take white bread in
preference to brown or patent breads, for it is more digestible and
more nutritious. It is preferable to have it toasted. Bread, biscuits,
and any foods containing sugar must be partaken of in moderation. As
regards liquids. Drink little, never more than half-a-pint of fluid at
each meal, and drink it when you have finished eating. Avoid alcohol
in all forms, tea, coffee, and _cocoa_--all of these are indigestible.
Never take soup, beef-tea, or meat essences. Let your chief drinks be
warm milk and aerated waters. Never drink anything very hot or very
cold. Ices are especially to be avoided. In addition look to your
teeth; have any bad teeth which may be present removed. Where you have
lost teeth have false ones put in. Beware of tight lacing. Corsets are
a fertile cause of indigestion, and are one reason why dyspepsia is
so much more common in women than in men. Take a good walk every day.
Guard against constipation from all causes. A little stewed fruit and
plenty of green vegetables will help to relieve this complication.
When intractable, a teaspoonful of liquorice powder or a pill of aloes
and nux vomica may be taken at night. A glassful of hot water taken
the last thing at night is also of value. As regards drugs, the first
necessity is to point out that these are very commonly the cause of
indigestion, and the less that dyspeptics have to do with them the
better they will be. Never have a “bottle of medicine” as a “cure”
for dyspepsia. Indigestion cannot be cured by drugs. Above all, avoid
pepsin, and acids and bitters. The former drug relieves indigestion for
a time, but makes it worse afterwards. It is only when normal digestion
is impossible that pepsin should be used. In nine cases out of ten
acids make indigestion worse; in the tenth case they are unnecessary.
But unfortunately we must occasionally resort to drugs to relieve
indigestion. A tablespoonful of bicarbonate of soda, or a “tabloid”
of sodamint, taken when fulness, or flatulency, or oppression, or
nausea is severe will often give instant relief. The severer grades of
dyspepsia require further treatment, but we are not considering them
now.
STUDY AND STUDIO.
MISS BAILEY.--We have already informed you that we send no answers
through the post. See our Rules.
EDITH.--Write to the Registrar, University of London, Burlington
Gardens, W. After matriculation, you can take the intermediate and B.A.
degree examinations. The B.A. degree would help you in the profession
of teaching. You do not tell us of your attainments; so we can hardly
judge what is within your reach.
MARGUERITE.--Write to Messrs. S. A. Partridge & Co., 8 and 9,
Paternoster Row, London, enclosing a stamp, and asking them if they
publish the hymn you quote. It is constantly to be seen on cards or
sheets, printed in large type for hanging in bedrooms.
IVY.--The lines on the loss of your cat are more neatly written than
the others. “Elfin” is not a noun but an adjective, and “prancing” is
not a suitable expression for fairies. You should not use the form
“sigheth” only for the sake of making the line long enough, as you use
the form “flickers” immediately afterwards.
EMILY C. COX (Tasmania).--1. We are inserting your request.--2. Your
writing is a little stiff and childish. It needs more freedom; but it
is quite plain and legible.
MARIA GRILLO (Italy).--1. Your request we insert below.--2. You would
have to write formally to the Editor of THE GIRL’S OWN PAPER about any
particular story you wished to translate.
CATRIONA.--The verses you enclose are not at all bad for a child of
eleven. At the same time, it is not unusual for intelligent children
thus to string their fancies into rhyme, and it is no proof at all of
latent poetic genius. Your little friend may become a poetess--or she
may not.
VERONICA.--Your story shows lack of experience. In order to make
us really interested in the love affairs of “Agatha,” there should
have been opportunity for the reader to study her character and
circumstances. There is no special point in the mere fact of her
receiving an offer of marriage from someone who is little more than a
name. A short story should as far as possible have its action in the
present, and not expect the reader to draw overmuch on his imagination.
AN INTERESTED READER.--1. You are certainly not too old to be coached
for the London Matriculation Examination. We hold in our hand a
prospectus of the “Queen Margaret Correspondence Classes,” which
prepare for that amongst other examinations. If you write to Miss
Birrell, 31, Lansdowne Crescent, Glasgow, she will send you full
particulars of subjects and fees. Tell her that you are a governess,
and wish to prepare for the London Matriculation.--2. “The Legend
of Bregenz” is by Adelaide Anne Proctor, and may be found in any
collection of her poems.
A NEW READER.--The metre of your lines is defective, and they would not
be accepted for publication. You give a vigorous description of the
well-known picture; but every poem should have some metre or “form” in
which it is written, and your “third lines” are wrong in every respect.
Study the laws of versification.
AN ARDENT ADMIRER OF THE “G. O. P.”--We like the spirit of your verses,
and the substance of them, but are obliged to tell you that the form
is very imperfect. The metre halts continually. Your ear can perhaps
discern that these first lines are not of the same cadence.
“O knowledge, replied the thinker.”
“All these and more the secrets are.”
The number of syllables may be the same, but the accent varies. You
should read good poetry, and if you wish to write verse, study the laws
of versification.
BLACK AND WHITE.--Your sketches are full of promise, but are not up
to the standard for publication. As you are so young, and have had no
Art-education, it seems to us that your father should strive to send
you to Art schools, as it undoubtedly would pay in the long run. You
have decided though unformed talent for black and white figure work.
INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE.
MISS L. MYLES, 13, Upper Mallow St., Limerick, Ireland, would like
a German correspondent to whom she could write in English, the lady
replying in German.
C. RAHIER’S note has arrived too late for its purpose. “HIGHLAND
LASSIE,” c/o Post Office, St. Cyrus, Scotland, would be pleased to
correspond with some nice French girl of good family. She would like
her correspondent to be about sixteen or seventeen years of age, and
“Highland Lassie” begs to say that she speaks French, and that she is
very fond of literature, music, and drawing.
MADEMOISELLE LOUISE FRANÇOIS, of Anzin, Nord, France, will be pleased
to correspond and exchange stamps with girls living in South and North
America, New Zealand, or any part of Australia.
EMILY and AGNES COX, Buckland, Tasmania, Oceania, aged 18 and 16, wish
to correspond with a French and also with a German girl with a view to
improving their knowledge of the languages. They will write in English,
French, or German.
MARGARET SPEEDIE, Surrey Road, South Yarra, Melbourne, Victoria, would
like to correspond with P. and H. Pierson (Dutch correspondents) and
Adelina Grillo (Italian) if they have not found anyone else. Perhaps
they will write to her once in any case.
MARIA GRILLO, an Italian girl aged 22, would be glad to correspond with
a German girl of about her own age, in order to improve her knowledge
of German. She would be ready to give any help in her power towards
the study of Italian. Address, Miss M. Grillo, Admiral Grillo, Via del
Carmine 6, Spezia, Italy.
EDITH COATES (who does not say whether we may give her address) wishes
to correspond with a French and a German girl aged from 18 to 25.
C. A. D. (formerly engaged in teaching) wishes for a French
correspondent.
A CARDIFF GIRL would like to correspond with a fairly educated American
girl about 16 years of age.
MARGARET E. BAKER, Villa Hoffnung, Godesberg, bei Bonn, Germany,
would like to correspond with Miss Jeffrey, whose request appeared in
September. Miss Baker is leading a life full of interest as a student
in Germany, and hopes soon to go to France or French Switzerland.
MISS E. C. HEPPER, Clareville, Headingley, Leeds, would be glad to
correspond with a well-educated French lady not under 30 years of age.
Each should write in the other’s language, and the letters would be
corrected and returned.
A RUSSIAN GIRL whose name and address we find some difficulty in
deciphering from her pleasant letter, wishes to correspond with “Miss
Inquisitive.” Here is our rendering of the address--Miss Ovana Thyne,
Riga, VI., Weidendam Hause 1.
MISCELLANEOUS.
JOAN.--When friends or strangers say that it has given them pleasure to
meet you, you must respond graciously, and say that you are likewise
glad that you have had the opportunity of meeting, or of making their
acquaintance, if a first introduction. Try to look pleasant when you
say so. It is not a time for looking stiff and solemn.
NIGHTINGALE.--If you have read all the books which we have recommended
on the subject of nursing, we can help you no further in that line.
But some useful manual might be obtained with reference to ambulance
work, and “First Aid.” Apply to the St. John Ambulance Association, St.
John’s Gate, Clerkenwell, E.C., inaugurated by the Order of St. John of
Jerusalem.
CLARICE.--If you hear “a ticking in the wall like that of a watch,” it
may be occasioned by a particular kind of little beetle which is known
to make just such a sound. If you have no ear for music, spare those
within hearing the nuisance of listening to inharmonious sounds and
incorrect time. Your hand is legible and of moderate size, and is not
very much to be condemned. On the contrary. But people differ in taste.
WHITE ROSE.--There is a “Factory Helpers Union” which is worked under
the auspices of the “Y.W.C.A.” The Hon. Secretary is Miss Skirrow, and
the office at 26, George Street, Hanover Square, W. There are branches
of this society at most of our large provincial cities. Amongst these
we may name Birmingham, Bristol, Eastbourne, Manchester, Ipswich,
Derby, and Leicester.
MARGARET H.--Put an advertisement in some of the leading papers, and
put up notices in the windows of the shops. Many of the owners would so
far oblige you, especially the grocer’s, butcher’s, and baker’s where
you deal, or propose to do so.
MARY AND KATHERINE.--We are very sorry for you; but your first duty is
to obey your parents. Take each some permanent address and in course of
time a correspondence may meet with no opposition. You are both minors
only.
NELL.--We give a notice of your “Invalid Home” at 10, Terrace Road,
Buxton, Derbyshire. The terms for board and lodging, with nursing,
etc., from two to five guineas a week. When visitors need only rest and
change of air, the terms are two and a half guineas, or three and a
half when two persons share the same room.
LILLY H. Y. Y.--Your letter impressed us very painfully. For a young
woman, or anyone, to “despise everybody” is a bad sign. There must
be grievous mental or moral disease (we do not mean in the sense of
insanity). Some of these light-hearted and apparently frivolous young
people may have fine, generous, unselfish natures, tender, loving
hearts; people who, whatever their tastes may be, or capabilities, or
deficiencies for intellectual culture, might willingly sacrifice any
selfish gratification to serve, or afford a little kindly attention to
another. Our divine Father made us all, with diversities both of gifts
and of opportunities. He does not “gather where He does not straw,” nor
does He permit anyone to judge his brother, nor to despise him. To his
own Master he will stand or fall. When your mother has a visitor, is it
not your duty as a daughter of the house to remain with and help her?
“Little children, love one another,” so said “the beloved disciple.”
Are you trying to profit by his teaching? We ask it in all kindliness
of feeling.
CLAUDIA.--Spilling salt was held to be an unlucky omen by the Romans,
and it is from them the idea has descended to us. You have perhaps seen
Leonardo da Vinci’s great picture of the “Last Supper,” and in that
Judas Iscariot is known by the salt cellar knocked over accidentally
by his arm. Salt was used by the Jews in sacrifice, and spilling it
after it was placed on the head of the victim was held to be a bad
omen; and this is according to Brewer, the origin of the superstition.
Salt was an emblem of purity, and the sanctifying influence of a holy
life upon others, hence our Lord tells His disciples that they are “the
salt of the earth.” There are also two references to “a covenant of
salt” in the Old Testament, see Numbers xviii. 19 and 2 Chron. xiii.
5. By this we understand that salt was a symbol of incorruption, and
thus of perpetuity, as the “covenant of salt” meant one which could
not be broken. There is of course no mention of the spilling of the
salt by Judas in the Bible. It was put in by the Italian painter
as a suggestion of what might have happened, a kind of significant
accessory to the great scene, and a suggestion of the great trouble to
come--according to the national superstition.
ST. MARIE.--We do not think that the hole in the top of a meat pie had
originally any reason, save that gravy is usually put in after the
pie is cooked, so as to ensure plenty of it, and also to allow the
escape of the steam, which, if allowed to remain in, would make the
pastry heavy and soft. There is nothing in the vapour of beef that
could injure the meat, and the same may be said of mutton and veal; nor
should there be any need for special ventilation, save in the case of
“high” game or venison. You will find this subject fully dealt with in
the sixth chapter of Mathieu Williams’s _Chemistry of Cookery_.