GENERAL REMARKS.
CLIMATE OF UNGAVA--AURORA BOREALIS--SOIL--VEGETABLE
PRODUCTIONS--ANIMALS--BIRDS--FISH--GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.
It need scarcely be observed that, in so high a latitude as that
of Ungava, the climate presents the extremes of heat and cold; the
moderate temperature of spring and autumn is unknown, the rigour of
winter being immediately succeeded by the intense heat of summer, and
_vice versá_.
On the 12th of June, 1840, the thermometer was observed to rise from
10° below zero to 76° in the shade, the sky clear and the weather
calm; this was, in fact, the first day of summer. For ten days
previously the thermometer ranged from 15° below zero to 32° above,
and the weather was as boisterous as in the month of January, snowing
and blowing furiously all the time. The heat continued to increase,
till the thermometer frequently exhibited from 85° to 100° in the
shade. This intense heat may, no doubt, be owing in a considerable
degree to the reflection of the solar rays from the rocky surface of
the country, a great part of which is destitute of vegetation. When
the wind blows from the sea the atmosphere is so much cooled as to
become disagreeable. These vicissitudes are frequently experienced
during summer, and are probably caused by the sea's being always
encumbered by ice. It is remarkable that the severest cold in this
quarter is invariably accompanied by stormy weather; whereas, in the
interior of the continent, severe cold always produces calm.
The winter may be said to commence in October; by the end of this
month the ground is covered with snow, and the rivers and smaller
lakes are frozen over; the actions of the tide, however, and the
strength of the current, often keep Ungava River open till the month
of January. At this period I have neither seen, read, nor heard of
any locality under heaven that can offer a more cheerless abode to
civilized man than Ungava. The rumbling noise created by the ice, when
driven to and fro by the force of the tide, continually stuns the ear;
while the light of heaven is hidden by the fog that hangs in the air,
shrouding everything in the gloom of a dark twilight. If Pluto should
leave his own gloomy mansion _in tenebris tartari_, he might take up
his abode here, and gain or lose but little by the exchange.
"The parched ground burns frore, and cold performs
The effect of fire."--MILTON.
When the river sets fast, the beauties of the winter scene are
disclosed--one continuous surface of glaring snow, with here and there
a clump of dwarf pine, of the bald summits of barren hills, from
which the violence of the winter storms sweep away even the tenacious
lichens. The winter storms are the most violent I ever experienced,
sweeping every thing before them; and often prove fatal to the Indians
when overtaken by them in places where no shelter can be found. The
year previous to my arrival, a party of Indians ventured out to a
barren island in the bay in quest of deer, taking their women along
with them. While engaged in the chase, a sudden storm compelled them
to make for the mainland with all possible speed. The women were soon
exhausted by their exertions, and, unable to proceed farther, were
at length covered by the snow, and left to their fate. As soon as the
fury of the storm abated, the men went in search of them; but in vain;
they were never found.
During winter the sky is frequently illuminated by the Aurora Borealis
even in the day-time; and I have observed that when the south wind,
the coldest in this quarter, (traversing, as it does, the frost-bound
regions of Canada and Labrador,) blows for any length of time, the sky
becomes clear, and the aurora disappears. No sooner, however, does the
east wind blow, which, being charged with the vapours of the Atlantic,
induces mild weather even in midwinter, than they again dart forth
their coruscations--more brightly at first, afterwards more faintly,
till, if the wind continue, they again disappear.
These phenomena seem to warrant the conclusion that the aurora is
produced by the evolving of the electric fluid, through the collision
of bodies of cold and warm air. The same phenomena are observable in
New Caledonia; the east wind, passing over the glaciers of the Rocky
Mountains, cools the atmosphere to such a degree as to cause frost
every month in summer; the west wind, on the contrary, causes heat;
and there, as in Ungava, the change of winds is followed by what may
be termed the Mountain Aurora (_Aurora Montium_?)
During my residence of five years at Ungava, the thermometer fell
twice to 53° below zero; and frequently ranged from 38° to 48° for
several days together; the extreme heat rose to 100° at noon in the
shade.
The soil of Ungava consists principally of decayed lichens, which form
a substance resembling the peat moss of the Scottish moors. In this
soil the lily-white "Cana" grows, a plant which I have not seen in
any other part of the continent, although it may elsewhere be found in
similar situations. In the low grounds along the banks of rivers, the
soil is generally deep and fertile enough to produce timber of a large
size; in the valleys are found clumps of wood, which become more and
more stunted as they creep up the sides of the sterile hills, till at
length they degenerate into lowly shrubs. The woods bordering on the
sea-coast consist entirely of larch; which also predominates in the
interior, intermixed with white pine, and a few poplars and birches.
The hardy willow vegetates wherever it can find a particle of soil
to take root in; and the plant denominated Labrador tea, flourishes
luxuriantly in its native soil. In favourable seasons the country
is covered with every variety of berries--blueberry, cranberry,
gooseberry, red currant, strawberry, raspberry, ground raspberry
(_rubus arcticus_), and the billberry (_rubus chamæmorus_), a
delicious fruit produced in the swamps, and bearing some resemblance
to the strawberry in shape, but different in flavour and colour, being
yellow when ripe. Liquorice root is found on the banks of South River.
To enumerate the varieties of animals is an easy task; the extremely
barren nature of the country, and the severity of the climate, prove
so unfavourable to the animal kingdom, that only a few of the more
hardy species are to be found here: viz.--
Black, brown, grisly, and polar bears.
Black, silver, cross, blue, red, and white foxes.
Wolves, wolverines, martens, and the beaver (but extremely rare).
Otters, minks, musk-rats, ermine.
Arctic hares, rabbits, rein-deer; and the lemming, in some parts of
the interior.
When we consider the great extent of country that intervenes between
Ungava and the plains of the "far west," it seems quite inexplicable
that the grisly bear should be found in so insulated a situation,
and none in the intermediate country: the fact of their being here,
however, does not admit of a doubt, for I have traded and sent to
England several of their skins. The information I have received from
the natives induces me to think that the varieties of colour in bears
mark them as distinct species, and not the produce of the same litter,
as some writers affirm. Why, otherwise, do we not find the different
varieties in Canada, where the grisly bear has never been seen? The
sagacious animals seem to be well aware of their generic affinity,
since they are often seen together, sharing the same carcass, and
apparently on terms of the most intimate fellowship.
It is a singular circumstance, that she-bears with young are seldom
or never killed; at least it is so extraordinary a circumstance, that
when it does happen, it is spoken of for years afterwards. She must,
therefore, retire to her den immediately after impregnation; and
cannot go above three months with young; as instances have occurred
of their being found suckling their young in the month of January, at
which period they are not larger than the common house-rat, presenting
the appearance of animals in embryo, yet perfect in all their parts.
Bruin prepares his hybernal dormitory with great care, lining it with
hay, and stopping up the entrance with the same material; he enters it
in October, and comes out in the month of April. He passes the winter
alone, in a state of morbid drowsiness, from which he is roused
with difficulty; and neither eats nor drinks, but seems to derive
nourishment from sucking his paws. He makes his exit in spring
apparently in as good condition as when he entered; but a few days'
exposure to the air reduces him to skin and bone.
The natives pay particular attention to the appearance presented by
the unoccupied dens they may discover in summer: if bruin has removed
his litter of the preceding winter, he intends to reoccupy the same
quarters; if he allows it to remain, he never returns; and the hunter
takes his measures accordingly.
The black bear shuns the presence of man, and is by no means
a dangerous animal; the grisly bear, on the contrary, commands
considerable respect from the "lord of the creation," whom he attacks
without hesitation. By the natives, the paw of a grisly bear is
considered as honourable a trophy as the scalp of a human enemy.
The reports I have had, both from natives and white trappers, confirm
the opinion that certain varieties of the fox belong to the same
species,--such as the black, silver, cross, and red; all of which have
been found in the same nest, but never any of the white or blue. The
former, too, are distinguished for their cunning and sagacity; while
the latter are very stupid, and fall an easy prey to the trapper; a
circumstance of itself sufficient to prove a difference of species.
There are two varieties of the rein-deer,--the migratory, and the
stationary or wood-deer: the latter is a much larger animal, but not
abundant; the former are extremely numerous, migrating in herds at
particular seasons, and observing certain laws on their march, from
which they seldom deviate. The does make their appearance at Ungava
River generally in the beginning of March, coming from the west, and
directing their course over the barren grounds near the coast, until
they reach George's River, where they halt to bring forth their young,
in the month of June. Meantime the bucks, being divided into separate
herds, pursue a direct course through the interior, for the same
river, and remain scattered about on the upper parts of it until the
month of September, when they assemble, and proceed slowly towards
the coast. By this time the does move onward towards the interior, the
fawns having now sufficient strength to accompany them, and follow the
banks of George's River until they meet the bucks, when the rutting
season commences, in the month of October; the whole then proceed
together, through the interior, to the place whence they came. In the
same manner, I have been informed, the deer perform their migratory
circuits everywhere; observing the same order on their march,
following nearly the same route unless prevented by accidental
circumstances, and observing much the same periods of arrival and
departure.
The colour of the rein-deer is uniformly the same, presenting no
variety of "spotted black and red." In summer it is a very dark grey,
approaching to black, and light grey in winter. The colour of the doe
is of a darker shade than that of the buck, whose breast is perfectly
white in winter. Individuals are seen of a white colour at all seasons
of the year. The bucks shed their antlers in the month of December;
the does in the month of January. A few bucks are sometimes to be
met with who roam about apart from the larger herds, and are in prime
condition both in summer and winter. These _solitaires_ are said to be
unsuccessful candidates for the favours of the does, who, having
been worsted by their more powerful rivals in _contentione amoris_,
withdraw from the community, and assuming the cowl, ever after eschew
female society; an opinion which their good condition at all seasons
seems to corroborate.
The rein-deer is subject to greater annoyance from flies than any
other animal in the creation; neither change of season nor situation
exempts them from this torture. Their great persecutor is a species
of gad-fly, (_oestries tarandi_,) that hovers around them in clouds
during summer, and makes them the instruments of their own torture
throughout the year. The fly, after piercing the skin of the deer,
deposits its eggs between the outer and inner skin, where they are
hatched by the heat of the animal's body. In the month of March, the
chrysalides burst through the skin, and drop on the ground, when they
may be seen crawling in immense numbers along the deer paths as they
pass from west to east.
The only birds observed in winter are grouse, ptarmigan, a small
species of wood-pecker, butcher-bird, and the diminutive tomtit. We
are visited in summer by swans, geese, ducks, eagles, hawks, ravens,
owls, robins, and swallows. The eider-duck, so much prized for its
down, is found in considerable numbers. The geese are of a most
inferior kind, owing, I suppose, to the poor feeding the country
affords; when they arrive in summer the ice is often still solid, when
they betake themselves to the hills, and feed on berries.
The lakes produce only white fish, trout and carp. We took now and
then a few salmon in the river, and there is no doubt that this fish
abounds on the coast.
In the sea are found the black whale, porpoise, sea-horse, seal, and
the narwal or sea unicorn; the horn of the latter, solid ivory, is a
beautiful object. The largest I procured measured six feet and a half
in length, four inches in diameter at the root, and a quarter of an
inch at the point. It is of a spiral form, and projects from near the
extremity of the snout; it presents a most singular appearance when
seen moving along above the surface of the water, while the animal is
concealed beneath.
The geological features of the country present so little variety, that
one versed in that interesting science would experience but little
difficulty in describing them; a mere outline, however, is all I can
venture to present.
Along the sea-coast the formation is granitic syenite; then,
proceeding about forty miles in the direction of South River, syenite
occurs, which, about sixty miles higher up, runs into green stone:
very fine slate succeeds. At the height of land dividing the waters
that flow in different directions, into Esquimaux and Ungava Bays, the
formation becomes syenitic schist, and continues so to within a short
distance of the great fall on Hamilton River; when syenite succeeds;
then gneiss; and along the shores of Esquimaux Bay syenitic gneiss,
and pure quartz: lumps of black and red hornblend are met with
everywhere. The country is covered with boulders rounded off by the
action of water, most of which are different from the rocks _in situ_,
and must have been transported from a great distance, some being of
granite--a rock not to be found in this quarter.
The rugged and precipitous banks of George's River are occasionally
surmounted by hills; at the base of all these elevations, deep
horizontal indentures appear running in parallel lines opposite each
other on either side of the river,--a circumstance which indicates the
action of tides and waves at a time when the other parts of the land
were submerged, and the tops of those hills formed islands. Along
certain parts of the coast of Labrador rows of boulders are perceived
lying in horizontal lines; the lowest about two hundred yards distant
from high-water mark, while the farthest extend to near the crest of
the adjacent hills. Several deep cavities and embankments of sand are
observed in the interior, bearing unequivocal marks of having been, at
one time, subject to the influence of the sea.
I shall conclude these few remarks by observing that, whatever
conclusions the geologist may arrive at as to the remote or recent
elevation of this country, the tops of the higher hills appear to have
been formerly islands in the sea; and I doubt not but the same may
be said of the higher lands on every part of the Arctic regions.
Admitting this to have been the case, it contributes to confirm the
theory of that distinguished philosopher, Sir Charles Lyell, as to
the cause of the changes that have taken place in the climate of the
northern regions.