THE
TEMPLES AND RITUAL
OF ASKLEPIOS
AT EPIDAUROS AND ATHENS
TWO LECTURES DELIVERED AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN
BY
RICHARD CATON, M.D., F.R.C.P.
_HON. PHYSICIAN LIVERPOOL ROYAL INFIRMARY
EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL_
_WITH THIRTY FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS_
SECOND EDITION
PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS OF LIVERPOOL
LONDON: C. J. CLAY AND SONS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE
1900
LONDON:
C. J. CLAY AND SONS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE
GLASGOW: 50, Wellington Street
[Illustration: Publisher Coat of Arms]
LEIPZIG: F. A. Brockhaus
NEW YORK: The Macmillan Company
BOMBAY: E. Seymour Hale
PREFACE
Some apology is perhaps needed from one who can neither claim to be a
classical scholar nor a professional archæologist in venturing upon the
subject of these lectures.
Repeated visits to Greece and the Greek colonies during the past twenty
years have enabled the author to observe, in their various stages,
certain of the researches to be here briefly recounted. To him their
interest appeared so considerable that it seemed probable the enquiry
might be attractive to members of the medical profession generally, and
perhaps also to other readers, from the side of the cult, if not from
that of the classical archæologist.
The same motive explains the effort made to present a picture, in part
hypothetical, of the ancient fabrics, and of the work carried on in
them. More latitude in speculation in such a direction is perhaps
allowable to one who traces the development of a cult, than to the
scientific archæologist.
No originality is claimed in regard to the facts. Some of the sketches
and restorations are original, and so are various theories or suggested
explanations, such as that regarding the purpose of the Tholos and the
Circular Pit at the Asklepieion; the suggestion that the Square
Building was a Prytaneion, where sacrificial banquets were held and the
perpetual fire maintained; the theory that certain of the buildings were
hostels; the conjecture regarding the selection of sites for Greek
Theatres, &c. Whether these are well-founded or otherwise only time and
further research can decide.
The author desires to record his thanks to the learned Oxford friend who
edited and translated the inscription on page 42, and who kindly pointed
out various errors in the first issue, also to Mr. Sampson, the
librarian of University College, Liverpool, for his highly valued advice
and for his kindness in reading the proofs of the present edition.
THE TEMPLES AND RITUAL OF ASKLEPIOS
LECTURE I
Ladies and Gentlemen,
You are aware that during the last twenty-five years the energy and
enthusiasm in archæological research of such men as Dr. Schliemann have
not merely thrown light on historic and prehistoric Greece, but have
also awakened a keener enthusiasm among classical scholars and in those
Societies which in various countries are devoted to archæological
investigation. Even Governments have been influenced and induced to help
on the progress of these highly interesting studies. The Germans have
spent large sums in the excavation of Olympia and Pergamos. The French
government has wisely and liberally incurred a considerable expenditure
in the excavation of Delphi and on other important works. The Greek
Government, aided by members of the Greek Archæological Society, has
devoted money and an infinitude of labour to investigations of the
classic wealth of Greece and the Greek colonies.
In these three instances, although the amount paid may be trivial when
viewed in the national balance-sheet, its archæological equivalent is
great. These three countries have not only made the whole world their
debtor by the liberality they have displayed, but each has quickened and
stimulated a taste for learning and for art among its own people.
One or two other nationalities have had a share in the progress made,
though of a more private and individual kind. The American School has
explored the Argive Heræon and certain other classical sites, and our
own British School in Athens, whose chief wealth has been the enthusiasm
of its members, has done much, when we consider the difficulties to be
met and the lack of that sufficient pecuniary support with which other
countries have endowed their representatives.
Although considerable interest is felt by the English public in regard
to much of the work just referred to, one important field of
investigation has remained comparatively unknown in this country—I mean
the exploration of the shrines of Asklepios, the god of healing, at
Epidauros and Athens, about which I am to have the honour of speaking to
you. As the time allotted is brief, it is needful to avoid all prefatory
remarks, and to restrict this paper almost entirely to a consideration
of the new discoveries and to inferences from them. As a matter of fact,
apart from the Hippocratic writings there is but scant information as to
the sanitary and medical aspects of Greek life in ancient literature.
Homer and Pindar have brief references to Epidauros and other
sanctuaries of the god; so also have Plato, Hippys of Regium, Strabo,
and some of the dramatists, as Aristophanes, and certain of the late
Greek writers, especially Pausanias. Under these circumstances most
precious are the researches made by the spade.
The pioneer in this inquiry was M. Cavvadias, the eminent archæologist,
Ephor of Antiquities and late Minister of Education in the Greek
government. To him more than to any one else we owe the important
additions lately made to this branch of archæology.
He worked in conjunction with the Greek Archæological Society, and was
aided by M. Staïs, the Conservator of the National Museum. Herr Baunack
and others helped to restore and decipher the hundreds of inscriptions
which were found—a work of no small difficulty.
Various authorities more or less associated with the French School, such
as M. Gérard, MM. Defrasse and Lechat, and Prof. Reinach; Dr. Dörpfeld,
Prof. Furtwängler, Herr Baunack, Dr. Köchler, and others associated with
the German School, have had a share in the work or in recording its
results.
Comparatively little has been done by the English, and only a limited
amount of description has been published in our language. An interesting
paper by Professor Percy Gardner, in his _New Chapters in Greek
History_, some valuable references by Miss Jane Harrison and Mrs.
Verrall in their _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_, the
admirable notes in Mr. Frazer’s new edition of _Pausanias_, and one or
two articles in American journals, such as the _American Antiquarian_
and _Cornell Studies_, are among the chief.
[Illustration: PLATE I—Outline Restoration of a part of the Hieron
of Epidauros (R.C.)]
Outline Restoration of Some of the Principal Buildings of the Hieron of
Epidauros
(_Some emendations in this plate have been borrowed from the important
work published by_ M. Cavvadias _during the present year._)
A South Propylæa, or possibly Temple of Hygeia. B Gymnasium (?). C
Temple of Asklepios. D D East and west Abaton; the lower story of
the latter and the steps leading down to it are shown. E The
Tholos. F Temple of Artemis. G The Grove. H Small altar. I Large
altar (?). J South boundary of sacred precinct, apparently of late
construction. K The ‘Square building.’ L The baths of Asklepios
and probable site of library. M Gymnasium or baths or hostel. N
The building with four quadrangles, probably a hostel. O Roman
building. P Roman baths. Q Supposed portico of Kotys. R
North-eastern colonnade. S North-eastern quadrangle, a hostel (?).
T Temple of Aphrodite. U Northern Propylæa on road from town of
Epidauros. V Roman building. W Northern boundary of precinct (?).
X Stadium. Y Goal, or perhaps starting-place. Z Mouth of
subterranean passage, communicating with precinct (?). α Temple of
Asklepios and Egyptian Apollo, according to Cavvadias. β Supposed
temple of the bountiful gods, γ Temple of Themis (?). δ Reservoir
or bath. ε Position of ancient cemetery.
The great theatre is situated about 200 yards to the south-east of the
building marked N.
NOTE. THIS BUILDING (N) IS SITUATED 150 YARDS MORE TO THE EAST THAN IS
HERE REPRESENTED.
For details of the work of the various writers _see_ appended list of
authorities consulted.
I have to express my acknowledgment to the authorities I have named, but
chiefly to M. Cavvadias for his kindness in giving me special facilities
in Greece, and for allowing me the use of some of his plates; also to
MM. Defrasse and Lechat, and to their publishers, who permit me to show
you some of their beautiful restorations. Apart from these the lantern
slides I shall show you are from photographs or sketches taken by myself
on the scene of the various excavations or in museums.[1]
I. The Hieron of Epidauros
According to tradition, Asklepios, the son of Apollo and Koronis, was
born in the Hieron valley, in the Argolic peninsula; the place names
still preserve the legend; the hamlet of Koroni commemorates his mother,
the hill Titthion owes its name to his having been there suckled by a
goat, while on the opposite hill, Kynortion, stood the temple of the
Maleatean Apollo.
The Hieron six miles from the town of Epidauros was the chief seat of
the worship of Asklepios, though minor ones existed in Athens, at
Delphi, Pergamos, Troizen, Kos, Trikke, and other places.
Plate I is an outline restoration, representing some of the principal
buildings in the Hieron.
I must warn the reader that this plan does not profess to be accurate.
The structural detail of the buildings is always more or less
conjectural, even their relative size and their distances from one
another are only approximately correct. The object of the plan is to
give a general idea of the arrangement of the chief buildings hitherto
discovered, exclusive of the theatre. (It should be stated here that the
numbers which follow refer to the illustrations, while the capital
letters correspond with those on Plate I).
_A_ represents the gateway or Propylæa (or perhaps temple of Hygieia) on
the south of the precinct. Its close relation to the quadrangle _B_ has
caused some observers to suppose it was the entrance to _B_ alone, but
to the writer this seems improbable.
_B_ is a large quadrangle about 250 feet square, reminding one of the
Palæstra at Olympia. The central space was surrounded by small rooms and
a colonnade; some of the columns of the latter remain, embedded in the
later Roman brickwork of a music hall or Odeon, constructed within the
quadrangle. Nine rows of seats and part of the stage of the Odeon still
remain. The building has been supposed to be a gymnasium; but if so,
must have ceased to be the scene of gymnastic exercises after the
quadrangle was built upon in Roman times. Was it a hostel?
[Illustration: PLATE II—Restoration of East End of Temple of
Asklepios (Defrasse)]
_C_ represents the temple of Asklepios, the central shrine, a richly
decorated and coloured doric building, erected in the fourth century
B.C., the east end of which is shown in the accompanying restoration by
Defrasse, Plate II. At the west and east gables were pediment groups
representing a battle with Centaurs and a combat of Greeks and Amazons:
one of the latter is shown in Plate III; together with acroteria, as in
Plate IV, which shows one of the two Nereids alighting from horseback;
these stood on the two sides, while a central winged victory occupied
the apex of the gable.
[Illustration: PLATE III—Remains of Amazon from Pediment]
[Illustration: PLATE IV—Remains of a Nereid, one of the Acroteria]
A beautiful ivory door, which cost 3,000 drachmæ, closed the sanctuary;
within, the cella was a single chamber; there was no opisthodomus.
Plate V, a restoration by M. Defrasse, represents the south side of the
temple, and also, towards the left, a part of the Abaton.
[Illustration: PLATE V—Restoration of part of Abaton and of Temple
of Asklepios (Defrasse)]
Within the temple stood, as shown in Defrasse’s drawing, Plate VI, the
great chryselephantine statue of Asklepios made by Thrasymedes of Paros,
a work somewhat resembling the Parthenon figure, or the vast Zeus of
Olympia, or the Hera at the Argive Heræon; the flesh was ivory, the rest
gold splendidly enamelled in colours. So many small replicas of this
figure remain—sculptured copies found at Epidauros, or small
representations on ancient coins—that by the aid of Pausanias’
description M. Defrasse has doubtless reproduced the image with a near
approach to accuracy.
The god was sitting on a throne, a large golden serpent rising up to his
left hand; on his right lay a dog, and in front was an altar.
[Illustration: PLATE VI—Restoration of chryselephantine figure of
Asklepios (Defrasse)]
Gold and ivory were beautiful materials for the sculptor, though
involving much difficulty when combined. The disappearance of all
attempts at chryselephantine sculpture in modern times is perhaps due to
this difficulty in production and to the cost, but probably more to the
fact that the ivory usually tended to crack. The great figure of Athena
in the Parthenon needed, we know, to be frequently moistened on its
ivory surface with water. At Olympia, oil was applied to the great
figure of Zeus, but curiously enough the Asklepios at Epidauros needed
neither. As the god of medicine, it may be supposed that he was able to
preserve his own integument, but Pausanias tells us that a well, beneath
the pavement of the temple, diffused sufficient moisture to prevent
contraction and cracking of the ivory.[2]
On the throne were representations, doubtless in relief, of Bellerophon
killing the Chimæra, and of Perseus with the head of the Medusa.
[Illustration: PLATE VII—Base of Temple of Asklepios]
Plate VII. represents the remains of the temple as they exist to-day.
Fragments of column, capital, pediment, &c., with pavements and bases of
walls, render the hypothetical reconstruction of the building fairly
easy.
_D D_ in my first illustration is the Ionic portico or Abaton, a part of
which is seen in Plates V. and X.; the western part is in two stories,
the lower one being in the basement. It is open on the south side; a
double colonnade supports the roof, the eaves of which, together with
the walls and columns, showed colour decoration. This constituted the
ward or sleeping place for the sick who were awaiting the miraculous
interposition of the god. The Abaton was furnished with pallets, lamps,
tables, altars, and probably curtains, the patients themselves supplying
their own bed clothing. Other details of this building will be given in
the next lecture. It may be added here that from one point of view these
remains are highly interesting, for they constitute the earliest known
example of a Hospital Ward. There is reason to believe that institutions
closely related to Infirmaries or Hospitals existed in Egypt many
centuries earlier than the founding of the Hieron, but no structural
trace of such a building has been discovered.
[Illustration: PLATE VIII—Remains of East Abaton]
The back or north wall of the Abaton, the front or south line of Ionic
columns and the central line of columns can be clearly made out from the
remaining fragments.
Plate VIII shows these remains of the eastern part of the Abaton. The
photograph unfortunately is defective, and it gives the idea that the
remains are less considerable and important than they really are.
In Plate IX the remains of the lower story of the western part are
shown. This photograph was taken from the top of the stairs leading down
to the area-like court from which access was obtained to the lower
story.
[Illustration: PLATE IX—Remains of lower story of West Abaton]
The Tholos or Thymele, shown at _E_ in Plate I and in the annexed
restoration by Defrasse, Plate X, was probably the most beautiful
circular temple that the Greeks ever built, far surpassing the
Philippeion at Olympia. It was built in the fourth century B.C., by
Polykleitos the younger, and took twenty-one years to build; externally
it presented a beautiful doric colonnade, with peculiarly rich cornice,
coloured. Within was a circle of sixteen graceful Corinthian columns of
marble; the wall and floor were also decorated with variously coloured
marbles. Here were two celebrated paintings by Pausias, the Greek
artist; the first represented Methe (drunkenness), a woman holding a
large wine goblet to her lips, the glass of which was so painted that
the face was seen through, or reflected in it. The second, a picture of
Eros (love) laying aside his bow and quiver and taking up his lyre, a
less dangerous weapon. Perhaps we may suppose that the painter here
indicated the relation of Bacchus and Venus to the ailments which
afflict mankind. The scourges which we are told the gods make out of the
pleasant vices of men doubtless often brought the wealthy Greek as a
suppliant to Asklepios.
[Illustration: PLATE X—Restoration of Tholos (Defrasse)]
What was the purpose of the Tholos? Defrasse and Lechat believe it was a
drinking-fountain, a sort of pump-room, in which in old times a healing
spring arose; if so, we can imagine the gouty Athenian being sent here
to drink large draughts from the holy spring, he envying meanwhile Methe
and her occupation on the wall before him. The foundations are curious,
consisting of a series of circular walls forming a labyrinth, every part
of which must necessarily be traversed by the explorer seeking the
central space, Plate XI.
[Illustration: PLATE XI—Foundation of Tholos]
MM. Defrasse and Lechat think this singularly constructed basement was a
water cistern from which the ‘pump-room’ above was supplied. The
difficulties attending this rather attractive hypothesis are—(_a_) that
the word ‘Thymele’ means a sacrificing place; (_b_) Pausanias speaks of
the Tholos and of the sacred well as though they were entirely distinct
places; (_c_) after careful search I can find no trace of a water
conduit; (_d_) the basement space, I may say confidently, was not
cemented, either on wall or floor, as in all probability it would have
been if to hold water. Not improbably the Tholos was employed for minor
sacrifices, and perhaps the labyrinth below may have been associated
with some mysterious Asklepian rite of which we are now ignorant;
_e.g._, the labyrinth may have been the home of the sacred serpents. We
do not know what were the domestic economics of these creatures; they,
in an especial degree, were the incarnation of the god. They were
treated by the sick with the utmost veneration; perhaps this curious
basement structure was their retreat, and conceivably the upper stage of
the Tholos was employed for the offering of sacrifices to them as
representatives of the god. Perhaps the sacrificial cakes (πόπανα) were
here offered to them. An aperture in the floor may have been provided
allowing the passage of the serpents from the labyrinth to the
sacrificing place above. We know that the sick were in the habit of
offering these cakes to the serpents as a matter of common usage.
[Illustration: PLATE XII—Restoration of Temple of Artemis (R.C.)]
Plate I, Letter _F_. The Temple of Artemis is smaller than that of
Asklepios (see Plate XII); the eaves were decorated by a rich cornice of
sculptured heads of dogs, the attribute of Artemis-Hekate. She, the
sister of Apollo, was a divinity of healing and succour, the chaste moon
goddess, who healed Æneas. Acroteria of Victories decorated the eastern
gable; within was a row of marble columns, and externally stood a triple
figure of Artemis-Hekate, and an altar.
Letter _G_ in Plate I shows the position of the grove, which probably
extended also in the direction of the Tholos. _H_ in the same plate
shows the position of an altar which may have been sacred either to
Asklepios or to Artemis. The letter _I_ shows a foundation on which
probably a much larger altar formerly stood; it may have been that of
Asklepios, on which possibly holocausts were offered. _J_ represents the
southern boundary of the precinct. β is thought to have been the shrine
of the Ἐπιδόται or bountiful gods.
_K_ in Plate I represents the square building which has occasioned much
discussion. It contains the base of an altar surrounded by many bones of
sacrificial animals and much ash, also fragments of bronze and
earthenware, many of them bearing dedications to Apollo or Asklepios.
Its period of erection seems to have been not later than the beginning
of the fifth century B.C. It contained great numbers of statues and
inscriptions. It may have been a house for priests or officials, or even
a hostel, or possibly was the Prytaneion, on the altar of which burnt
the perpetual fire; no mention is, however, made of a Prytaneion in the
inscriptions.
_L_ in Plate I represents a large building, irregular, and of various
date; believed to have been the baths of Asklepios; this building
perhaps may have also contained the library, dedicated to the Maleatean
Apollo and Asklepios, which one would think is likely to have been in
some central position.
_M_ in Plate I is intended to represent a rectangular building of which
only small traces remain. Whether or not it was a definitely constructed
quadrangle, such as I have drawn, may be uncertain. If it was, perhaps
we have here the remains of one of the two gymnasia which the
inscriptions tell us existed at the Hieron, or it may have contained
baths.
_N_ in the same plate is a restoration of the building with the four
quadrangles, only lately excavated. It is the largest building yet
discovered at the Hieron, being nearly 90 yards square. Each of the four
quadrangles is surrounded by a number of rooms. In all there were
between seventy and eighty of these apartments, each of which opened
into its own quadrangle, so far as I could judge. A colonnade ran round
the interior of each quadrangle. Query, what is it?—a gymnasium, a
palæstra, a college for the priests, or a great hostel? I confess the
last-named seems the most probable. When one considers the large number
of the sick who came to the Hieron, it is obvious that extensive
accommodation must have been provided for them somewhere. The two
chambers of the abaton could not have held more than 120 beds, supposing
these to have been placed in two rows; or if we suppose the almost dark
lower story of the western end to have been a dormitory also, 180 would
then have been the greatest possible accommodation. This, if the extreme
number to be entertained, scarcely accords with the accounts given by
ancient writers of the multitudes who came for healing to the sanctuary.
It appears likely, therefore, that this and other undetermined buildings
were hostels for the accommodation of those whose ailments were slight
or who were convalescent.
[Illustration: PLATE XIII—North-Eastern Colonnade]
The remains of this curious structure are shown as seen from a distance
in Plate XVII below.
_O_ in Plate I is a Roman building. Cavvadias thinks that α is the
temple of Asklepios and the Egyptian Apollo.
_P_ is a building also of the Roman Period, and evidently contained
baths. There are traces of a hypocaust. The remains of hot air or hot
water pipes are abundant, and certain curious apse-like recesses in the
walls, containing a seat and terminating below in a bath or deep basin,
were evidently a form of sitzbath. When we remember that the French have
lately discovered at Delphi no less than three extensive bathing
establishments, adjacent to the walls of the precinct on the east, west,
and south sides respectively, it is not surprising that we should find
at least two such buildings at Epidauros. A part of this Roman
bath-house is seen in the distance in Plate XIII.
[Illustration: PLATE XIV—Figure of Aphrodite]
_Q_ in Plate I is a quadrangular building between the Temple of Artemis
and the South Portal. Round three if not four of its sides were rooms,
as in the case of the great four-quadrangle building; many remains of
columns are seen. Its purpose is doubtful. Probably it is the Colonnade
of Kotys which Pausanias mentions. (It is to be hoped that no shrine of
the dissolute Thracian goddess of that name existed here.)
This Colonnade of Kotys we know was originally built of sun-dried brick,
and may perhaps originally have had wooden columns. Sun-dried brick, so
common in many parts of Greece to-day, was often used in ancient times
for important purposes, as, for example, in the building of the Heræon
at Olympia. When this somewhat perishable material was covered with a
fine hard cement, which resisted the heaviest rain, walls so constructed
became wonderfully durable. The Colonnade of Kotys was rebuilt during
Roman times. Some of the roof tiles discovered lately bear the name of
Antoninus. Cavvadias suggests that the small temple γ is that of Themis.
_R_ in Plate I is a colonnade which extended east and west nearly at
right angles with the Roman Baths _P_ described above. Plate XIII shows
the remains of this colonnade, also a small open aqueduct with basins in
its course about eleven yards apart. This small water channel reminds
the visitor of a similar one existing in front of the Echo Colonnade at
Olympia, the latter contains one or two basins like those shown in the
plate. This view shows in the distance the Roman baths (_P_).
Adjoining this colonnade on the north-east is a large quadrangle _S_,
formerly bordered on its four sides by columns. Its length east and west
was about double its breadth north and south. Was this another hostel?
_T_ is believed by M. Cavvadias to be the Temple of Aphrodite, a Doric
structure only excavated in 1892. An inscription discovered on the spot
speaks of the sanctuary of Aphrodite; not far from it was found a statue
of the goddess in Parian marble, a most beautiful figure now preserved
in the Museum at Athens. Plate XIV is an attempt to represent this
figure as it now exists. The ancient cemetery of the Hieron was near the
point marked ε in Plate I.
_U_ in Plate I is an Ionic building, the present condition of which is
shown in Plate XV. It may be a temple external to the precinct, or it
may, as others suggest, be the Northern Propylæa or Ceremonial Gateway.
The latter appears the more probable explanation; by this entrance the
pilgrims who came from the port of Epidaurus would approach the
Sanctuary. Note the small well in the foreground.
_V_ is a Roman building of unknown purpose, and _W_ represents a barrier
which probably was the northern wall of the precinct. A wall protected
the sacred enclosure on every side, “Τὸ δὲ ἱερὸν ἄλσος τοῦ Ἀσκληπιοῦ
περιέχουσιν ὅροι πανταχόθεν,”[3] says Pausanias, but fully one-half of
this barrier has yet to be found. It will be noted that, as at Olympia,
many important buildings are external to the precinct.
Plate XVI represents a side view of the theatre (which is not shown in
the outline plan Plate I).
[Illustration: PLATE XV—Northern Propylæa and Well]
The Great Theatre situated to the south of the precinct was built about
the year 450 B.C. by Polykleitos, the architect of the Tholos.
Pausanias, who was a great traveller, tells us it was the most
interesting of all the theatres existing in his time, and to-day any one
who is familiar with the theatres of Greece and the Greek colonies will
say that this is more impressive than any of the others. The Koilon or
auditorium consisted of fifty-five rows of marble seats, with
twenty-four lines of stairs. The space for the chorus is, according to
the ancient system, circular, and in the centre doubtless stood an altar
of Bacchus. The stage was elevated nearly twelve feet, the proscenium
being enriched by splendid sculpture. The acoustics of the theatre are
perfect; a sound little louder than a whisper uttered on the stage can
be heard in every part. The theatre is so placed on the slope of
Kynortion that the occupants of the major part of the auditorium had a
charming view (over the top of the stage) of the mountains to the north
and of the whole range of beautiful buildings of the Hieron.
[Illustration: PLATE XVI—Theatre]
Plate XVII represents the view taken from the top row of seats. Note the
circular chorus space, the remains of the “four quadrangle building,”
and glimpses of the Hieron beyond. While witnessing here the sublime
tragedies of Æschylus or Sophocles, or such a comedy as the _Plutus_ of
Aristophanes (in which, as you will remember, great fun is made at the
expense of Asklepios and his priests), the contrast afforded by glancing
from the stage to the blues and purples of the mountains, the verdancy
of the grove, and the beautiful forms and colours of the group of
temples would be most pleasing. The Greeks were acute in perceiving and
taking advantage of subtle sources of pleasure like this, and I believe
that the sites of many of their theatres were chosen so as to secure for
the audience this double pleasure. The Theatre of Delphi is a
conspicuous example of this provision, as also is that of Tauromena.
This theatre has been said to seat 12,000 spectators; according to my
own rough computation, it unquestionably will hold over 9,000 without
crowding.
[Illustration: PLATE XVII—View of Theatre from top row of seats,
ruins of the “four quadrangle building” in the distance]
Before quitting this theatre it may be remarked that Dr. Dörpfeld’s
interesting and attractive theory of the occupancy of orchestra and
stage equally by the players in a Greek drama, is difficult of
application in this individual case, in consequence of the great
difference in level—eleven or twelve feet—between the two. So great a
disparity of surface would, as most people think, seriously interfere
with the unity of the representation, even if flights of steps connected
orchestra and stage.
_X_ in Plate I represents part of the Stadium, which is about six
hundred feet long. Here are remains of at least fifteen rows of marble
seats. Probably foot races took place here as well as other forms of
athletic exercise. All the maps of the Hieron represent the eastern end
of the Stadium as semicircular, but so far as one can judge, the latest
excavations indicate that it was square, and therefore I have so
represented it.
[Illustration: PLATE XVIII—East end of Stadium]
Assuming that the fifteen rows of seats extended from end to end on each
side, and allowing a foot and a half for each person, the Stadium would
seat twelve thousand spectators on its two sides, without computing the
seats at the ends.
Plate XVIII represents the excavation at the end adjacent to the Hieron.
_Y_ in Plate I (shown also in Plate XVIII) is either the starting place
or the goal. _Z_ is a subterranean passage probably communicating with
the precinct.
An inscription (found in 1896) mentioned by Mr. Frazer, shows that a
hippodrome also existed at the Hieron.
On Mount Kynortion, some distance south of the great theatre, stood the
temple of the Maleatean Apollo. The remains are so fragmentary that it
is difficult to devise a conjectural restoration.
II. The Asklepieion at Athens
Before saying anything about the ritual and the treatment of the sick at
the Hieron, it will be well to turn to the Asklepieion at Athens, and
examine briefly the structural arrangements there. Situated on the south
side of the Acropolis, at an elevation of perhaps eighty feet above the
plain, adjoining on the east the theatre of Dionysus, the locality was
probably as healthy as any the immediate neighbourhood of Athens could
supply. The heat no doubt was great in summer, but we may conclude that
a grove of large trees afforded grateful shade to the sick.
[Illustration: PLATE XIX—Portico of Eumenes and Acropolis]
[Illustration: PLATE XX—Attempt at an Outline Restoration of the
Asklepieion at Athens (R.C.)]
[Illustration: PLATE XXI—Remains of Asklepieion from the West]
Plate XIX represents the remains of the Stoa or Portico of Eumenes (so
called) lying to the south of the Acropolis. To the extreme left is seen
the temple of the Nike Apteros, and on the summit of the Akropolis the
Parthenon. Between the Stoa and the rock of the Akropolis is situated
the Asklepieion. The accompanying outline plan, No. XX, is an attempt to
give some idea of the arrangement of buildings within the precinct. The
buildings were to a certain extent an imitation, on a smaller scale, and
on a limited area, of those at the Hieron of Epidauros. Remains of what
were probably a temple of Asklepios and Hygieia, of doric architecture,
also a supposed temple of Themis, and a shrine of Isis, exist, while
smaller shrines of Serapis, Kore, Hypnos, Herakles, Panakia, Demeter,
and other divinities have left no distinct traces. There are
considerable remains of a large eastern portico or abaton of pentelic
marble, from which is reached a circular chamber in the rock containing
the sacred well. Some of the masonry here seems to me to be of late
Roman date.
[Illustration: PLATE XXII—Remains of Asklepieion from the East]
Plate XXI represents the Asklepieion as seen from the western end, and
plate XXII from the east. The building inscribed “western abaton” in
plan No. XX may have been a supplementary abaton or a priest’s house or
a covered gymnasium. A grove existed, perhaps occupying the space
between the Stoa of Eumenes and the temples, or situated in a large
vacant space to the west.
On an elevation above and close to the abaton is a curious well-like
structure, surrounded by marble columns, which perhaps was the serpent
pit.
[Illustration: PLATE XXIII—Supposed Serpent Pit and remains of
Marbled Columns round it]
Plate No. XXIII represents the remains of this curious and mysterious
structure. I examined the masonry carefully to see if a direct
communication between this supposed snake pit and the abaton could be
traced, but failed to find it. If the purpose of the Tholos at Epidauros
is that suggested above, viz., a place of sacrifice to the sacred
serpents, may we not have here also the remains of a Tholos or Thymele
on a small scale? Possibly the four marble bases are those of columns
surrounding an altar to which the serpents ascended from their pit
beneath, to receive the sacrificial cakes of the worshippers, who
themselves stood beneath a roof carried by these columns. This of course
is a mere hypothesis.
The grove contained great numbers of statues, busts, ex-votos, and
inscriptions. The theatre of Dionysos close at hand was doubtless
frequented by the sick as a diversion. The stall occupied by the priest
of Asklepios, with his name on it, is still in excellent preservation,
as seen in plate XXIV. He sat in the first rank, in a most honoured
position, with his back to the setting sun, next to the priest of the
Muses. The Panathenaic stadium, three-quarters of a mile away, doubtless
was also frequently visited by the convalescents from the Asklepieion.
[Illustration: PLATE XXIV—Seats of Priests of Asklepios and of the
Muses in the Theatre]
LECTURE II
We now pass on to consider the ritual of the Asklepian shrines and the
accommodation and treatment of the sick who frequented them.
It is convenient, first, to consider the Hierarchy. They consisted of
the Hiereus or Hierophant, the priest, who was the head official. He was
appointed annually, and he appears to have been frequently re-elected.
From the Athenian inscriptions we know that sometimes he was a
physician, sometimes not; so also it was with the subordinate officials.
The priest was the general administrator, and had a share in the
financial government of the temple. The Dadouchoi, or torch-bearers,
were probably subordinate priests; the Pyrophoroi, or fire-carriers,
among other functions, lighted the sacred fire on the altars; the
Nakoroi or Zakoroi, whose duties in the temple are uncertain, sometimes
were physicians; the Kleidouchoi, or key-bearers, who perhaps were
originally a class of superior door porters, but who appear later to
have assumed priestly functions; the Hieromnemones seem to have had
purely secular duties, and in common with the Hiereus had charge of all
receipts and payments; all were under the rule of the Boule of
Epidauros. The Kanephoroi (or basket-bearers) and the Arrephoroi (or
carriers of mysteries or holy things) were priestesses. We read in some
of the inscriptions of servants or attendants who ministered to the
sick, and carried those who were unable to walk. Did these women in any
degree act as nurses? It is possible, but no definite information on the
subject is given.
There were certain officials, also, who attended to the sacred dogs; the
serpents are not thus far known to have had such guardians. We read also
of bath attendants.
There was also a special religious society termed the Asklepiastai.
Turning now from the priests to the suppliants: these, we find, came
from all parts of the Greek world, and from what ancient writers tell us
their numbers appear to have been great. Where were they housed? Some,
of course, dwelt in the abaton, the women probably in one part and the
men in another, for a wall divided the East from the West abaton; but,
as I have already pointed out, not more than 120 could find beds there
at a time; perhaps the invalid was only housed there at first, and when
he began to improve was drafted off to a hostel. Assuming that all the
buildings which I have suggested to be hostels were such, they could not
accommodate more than some four or five hundred patients. Perhaps we may
assume that such was the usual number attending at ordinary times, while
at the great festivals many thousands assembled. Whether this large
number were lodged in tents or temporary wooden buildings, or otherwise,
is uncertain.
Probably multitudes of vigorous and able-bodied persons came to the
festivals, and many of them may have been lodged six miles away at the
town of Epidauros, or in villages or hamlets adjacent. The ten or twelve
thousand who filled the Theatre or the Stadium cannot have been
exclusively sick people. It seems probable that numbers of athletes and
multitudes of Greeks who merely wanted a holiday and a little excitement
came to the Megala Asklepieia as they came to the Isthmian or the
Olympic games. Setting aside, therefore, all visitors of this class, who
probably brought gains to the Sanctuary, and for whom accordingly space
was provided in the Theatre, Stadium, and Hippodrome, I pass on to
consider the suppliants proper.
The patient on arrival probably had an interview with the priest or
other official, and arranged about his accommodation with one of the
Hieromnemones, or other secular person. He performs certain rites,
bathes in the sacred fountain, and offers sacrifices under the direction
of the Pyrophoros; the poor man gives his cake only, the rich his sheep,
pig, or goat, or other offering in addition. The votive tablets
frequently show the cakes (πόπανα) being presented, or the sheep, pig,
or other animal. Where the ceremonial purification took place is
uncertain. A deep well exists in the eastern abaton. A stone dropped
struck the water in a fraction over three seconds, as I found after
repeated trials. The well is therefore over 144 feet deep. Possibly the
water used in the ritual was derived hence, but more probably the place
of purification has yet to be found. “Only pure souls may enter here,”
was inscribed over the entrance of the temple of Asklepios.
Pausanias speaks of a fountain beautifully roofed and decorated, “κρήνη
τῷ τε ὀρόφῳ καὶ κόσµῳ τῷ λοιπῷ θέας ἀξία.”[4] Can this have been the
bath of Asklepios marked L in my plan? Traces of a large basin remain
there.
When night comes the sick man brings his bed-clothing into the abaton,
and reposes on his pallet, putting usually some small gift on the table
or altar. The Nakoroi having come round to light the sacred lamps, the
priest enters and recites the evening prayers to the god, entreating
divine help and divine enlightenment for all the sick assembled there;
he then collects the gifts which had been deposited on altars and
tables; later the Nakoroi enter, put out the lights, enjoin silence, and
command everyone to fall asleep and to hope for guiding visions from the
god. The abaton was a lofty and airy sleeping chamber, its southern side
being an open colonnade. It is singularly like the ‘shelter balcony’ or
_Liegehalle_, now used in treating phthisis. This provision of abundance
of pure fresh air for the sick by day and night, which is so beneficial
now, was undoubtedly so then also, and probably brought much credit to
the god and his shrine.
According to the inscriptions the god frequently appeared in person, or
in visions, speaking to the sick man or woman concerning their ailments.
Whether these visitations were merely hallucinations in individuals
whose imaginations had been excited, or whether some priest in the dim
light, accompanied by a serpent, acted the part of Asklepios; whether
the patient was put under the influence of opium or some other drug
provocative of dreams; or whether, by some acoustic trick, the priests
caused the sick to hear spoken words which they attributed to the deity,
it is difficult now to say.
The valley of the Hieron was the habitat of a large yellow serpent,
perfectly harmless, and susceptible, like most snakes, of domestication.
Pausanias tells us it is found in the Epidaurian country alone. I am
afraid it is now extinct, though it has been seen during the present
century. A number of these creatures dwelt in the sanctuary, perhaps in
the vaults of the Tholos. They were reverenced as the incarnation of the
god. The sick were delighted and encouraged when one of these creatures
approached them, and were in the habit of feeding them with cakes. The
serpents seem to have been trained to lick with their forked tongue any
ailing part. The dog also was sacred to Asklepios, and the temple dogs
in like manner were trained to lick any injured or painful region of the
body.
It will be remembered that in the _Plutus_ of Aristophanes, the blind
Plutus enters the abaton of the Asklepieion at Athens in order to be
cured. Asklepios with his daughters, Iaso and Panakeia, appear in
person; they whistle to the sacred serpents, which at once approach,
lick the blind eyes, and vision is restored.
[Illustration: PLATE XXV—Restoration of the Interior of the Abaton
at Epidauros
Patient Sacrificing and having Injured Leg licked by the Sacred
Serpent (R.C.)]
In the accompanying sketch of the abaton, Plate XXV, a miracle is in
progress in the foreground. A lame man comes to the altar, he offers his
sacrifice, the Pyrophoros lights the sacred flame, the Dadouchos or
Nakoros enjoins silence while the holy serpent licks the affected part.
The abaton is nearly empty, as it is the daytime, but one or two
bedridden patients watch the miracle with interest.
In the inscriptions the phrase ἰάσατο τῇ γλώσσᾳ, referring to the
serpent, is met with, and also in reference to the dogs κύων τῶν ἱαρῶν
ἐθεράπευσε τῇ γλώσσᾳ.
Many of the _malades imaginaires_, who to this day are the support of
the quack, and a cause of embarrassment and difficulty to the scientific
physician—who desires above all things to be honest—doubtless visited
Epidauros.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVI—Head of Asklepios]
The priest wearing the holy chaplet would take such a person (as
probably he took all suppliants) into the temple, and cause him to
present himself before the image of the god; libations were poured,
prayers and sacrifices offered, and rites of an impressive kind enacted.
Hymns and pæans were sung to the music of the double flute. The sick man
was caused to lay his hand solemnly and reverently on the altar of the
god, and then on the part of his own body presumed to be affected; if
there were really nothing the matter, he was proclaimed to be
miraculously cured by the god, and doubtless his imagination was so
impressed that he often himself believed in the cure.
If the patient were young, sacrifices were doubtless offered at the
shrine of Artemis-Hekate, and perhaps in all cases the procession of
priests and suppliants visited the Tholos (which you remember was the
Thymele or sacrificing place) and offered sacrifices there perhaps to
the serpent, the incarnation of the god of healing; or the train of
votaries ascended Mount Kynortion to the shrine of the great Apollo.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVII—Asklepios with Serpent.]
The suppliants spent the day in rest or exercise, as was most agreeable
to them. It must be remembered that the precinct was as beautiful as the
noblest works of Greek art could make it; moreover large and lofty trees
formed a shady grove, protecting from the sun’s heat, while the soft
breeze and the sweet pure air of the mountains formed in themselves a
potent agency for the restoration of health. The patient had much around
him to please and interest—beautiful buildings, rich with sculpture and
with colour, statuary figures and groups representing Asklepios and
other divinities or subjects from the old Greek mythology in marble and
bronze.
Plate XXVI represents a head of Asklepios (from the Asklepieion at the
Piræus), to which the genius of the sculptor has given an expression of
sorrow and sympathy, as though the god were grieving over the sufferings
of mankind.
Plate XXVII shows a full-length figure of the god, found at Epidauros,
accompanied as usual by the serpent. Artistic reliefs, hermæ, and
full-length figures of noted priests and physicians, and of individuals
eminent in art, philosophy, literature, or history; also ex-votos,
stelæ, and tablets recording the marvellous cures effected by the god,
coloured bas-reliefs, encaustic paintings, shrines, exedræ, decorative
vases and fountains, beautified and added interest to the precinct.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII—Shelter-seat]
Shelter-seats, arranged in semicircles, of beautiful white marble, were
so placed as to avoid sun or wind; they were convenient for converse, or
for listening to a reader or a musician.
Plates XXVIII and XXIX represent the remains of two of these seats at
the Hieron; close to the former is seen a large pedestal on which
probably an equestrian statue formerly stood.
[Illustration: PLATE XXIX—Shelter-seat]
Many shrines and chapels to subsidiary deities existed, as, for example,
to Hygieia, Themis, the Egyptian Apollo, Helios, Selene, Epione (the
wife of Asklepios), Zeus, Poseidon, Minerva, Hera, Demeter and other
Eleusinian deities, Dikaiosyne, Lato, Hypnos, Eileithyia, and others not
as yet identified. The diminutive figure of Telesphoros, in his capacity
of god of Convalescence, is not seen here so often along with Asklepios
on ex-votos and coins, as at Pergamos and some other Temples.
Plate XXX represents a number of small figures of Hygieia and of
Asklepios from the Hieron.
Every devout Greek who came as a suppliant to Asklepios would find here
also a shrine of his own favourite deity.
To those who had been initiated at Eleusis, and whose advanced age or
incurable sickness gave little prospect of life, the calm and dignified
forms of Demeter, Persephone, and Iakchos would suggest patience and the
hope of a pure spiritual after-life, free from all bodily infirmity,
“for the Greek or Roman heart ... was as full, in many cases fuller, of
the hope of immortality than our own.”[5]
[Illustration: PLATE XXX—Figures of Asklepios and Hygieia]