THE ROMAN QUESTION
I. _Before 1870_
The "Roman Question" represents the only "religious" question in
Italy. The problems which agitate other lands leave the Italian
unaffected, uninterested. He has no genius for reforming, and no
genius for sect-making, he is as tolerant of abuses as of diversities.
So it comes about that the one and only "religious" question in Italy
is a political question--the rights and wrongs of the situation
created for the papacy when it was despoiled of its temporalities.
It is certainly not generally remembered that ideals for a great
future for Italy were not confined in the "forties" to the Italian
_unita_ men. Pius IX. had read Cesare Balbo's "_Speranze d'Italia_"
and had understood that it was desirable that Italy should free
herself from the stranger. But he had been most strongly moved by
Gioberti's "_Primato morale e civile degli Italiani_" in which "the
majesty of Christianity and the destinies of Italy" were set forth as
mutually interdependent, Italy gaining its pre-eminence from the
Christian primacy which had grown in its midst and was of its soil.
There he read that "Italy is the capital of Europe because Rome is the
religious metropolis of the world," and there he gained his notion of
an Italian federation under the civil headship of the Pope. That this
idea was unrealisable was not the fault of Pius IX. It was the fault
of the age in which he lived. He was not by temperament an
obscurantist, and he began by being something of a political idealist.
He had been brought up piously and carefully, and had no political
arts, and he wondered that the papal government should be found
opposing reforms which were demanded by modern progress. Yet his own
papal career ended in political obscurantism and the absurdities of
the _Syllabus_. Even had the flight to Gaeta, however, never
intervened to chill the Pope's political idealism, things could not
have had a different ending; for if on the one hand no European nation
would have consented to place itself, even nominally, under a
theocratic suzerain, on the other hand the papacy was not in the
"forties" and had not been for centuries in a position to accept the
civil headship of a great European state. Gioberti himself said enough
to show that his golden visions for Catholicism were contingent on a
complete restoration of the Church which was not undertaken then and
has not been undertaken since.
Now that Rome is lost to the popes it is the fashion to conceive of
the temporal power as a divinely ordained instrument for the
protection and free development of the Kingdom of God on
earth--self-consistent, identical, uninterrupted. Such a conception
does not correspond to facts. We all know that the "Donation" of Rome
to the popes in the fourth century by the first Christian Emperor
Constantine, is only a pious myth, but even Charlemagne in the eighth
retained his imperial rights over Rome and over the person of the
pontiff. It was not till the age of the renascence and the rise of the
great European states with the absorption of the small principalities
and duchies, that the temporal power of the popes was ideated by them
in its modern sense; and it is then that they completed the
territorial aggressions by which they carved out for themselves an
Italian state extending north and east to Tuscany and Venetia and
southwards to Naples. The history of the papacy since then has been a
history not of war between the forces of the world and the forces of
Satan, the efforts of princes to enslave and the efforts of popes to
establish Christian freedom, but a history of the efforts of the civil
power and the civil prince to curb papal encroachments on their
rights--efforts which during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
attained the proportions of true Magna Chartas of civil liberties. The
modern conception of the temporal power aggravated the "pre-eminent
domain" which the popes claimed in temporal affairs; the conception of
civil liberties which had smouldered in the middle ages burst into
flame in the modern world, and less than a century in fact elapsed
between the final destruction of all "home rule" in the papal states
and the loss of the temporal power.
When we speak of the servitude of the Pope in the King of Italy's
dominions, we forget that Catholic princes have always found
themselves obliged to restrain the papal arm, and to propound from
time to time laws protecting the minor against the major clergy, the
prelates against the pretensions of the papacy, the people against the
publication of obnoxious Bulls, and the public peace by subjecting the
correspondence between the Pope and the bishops to scrutiny. Thus the
disciplinary canons of the Council of Trent were not published--and
were never accepted--in many Catholic states. Canon law has been the
constant butt of civil legislation which has denied one by one the
immunities of ecclesiastics and abolished the existence of
ecclesiastical courts for the trial of clerical offenders. The
abstract question of the popes' relation to civil rights and to
temporal power cannot be viewed apart from the sober teaching of
history.
[Illustration: CASTEL AND PONTE SANT' ANGELO
The castle of S. Angelo, fortified in the time of the popes, was
built by Hadrian as his mausoleum. The bridge is the ancient _pons
Aelius_ of which the parapet is modern, and the statues of SS. Peter
and Paul and of angels bearing the instruments of the Passion were
added by Clements VII. and IX. It was built by Hadrian to reach his
mausoleum. In the middle ages it was lined by a double row of
booths, and two hundred people were crushed to death here in the
Jubilee of 1450. See pages 32, 239, 242.]
Already in the reign of Pius VI. the Romans had imbibed from the
French some of the doctrines of the Revolution, among them that of the
sovereignty of the people. From that time onwards the papal power
could never have been upheld except by foreign arms; and the spirit in
which the great Napoleon offered his services should be sufficient
evidence that the task of preserving the patrimony of Peter was not
undertaken by those whom we ought to regard as having understood
better than the Italians the things which belonged to Catholic peace.
Every one will admit that the pontifical states were not really
independent during these foreign occupations: what appears to be
less clear is that a pope-king is not necessarily more free to
exercise his high office than a pope who does not rule or who may even
be the subject of another government. There is a covered way from the
Vatican to Castel Sant' Angelo which is itself a parable of the
history of the Roman popes. It was constructed as a means of fleeing
in secrecy and safety from the Vatican when the turbulent Romans or
foreign invaders made the pope's life insecure and placed his city at
the mercy of vandals. The "Pope's own city of Rome" should never be
thought of without a mental picture of the covered passage from the
episcopal palace to the fortified castle, along which popes young and
old, bad and good, have hurried praying or cursing. Let us look upon
some of these fugitive popes, and realise from their trembling steps,
their impotent objurgations, the hunted look in their eyes, how much
of dignity and liberty the possession of Rome secured to them in the
exercise of their divine mission. There is a type of Catholic whose
favourite theme is Canossa, as his adversary's favourite theme is the
Copernican system. An emperor standing outside the Pope's castle in a
penitent's shirt through weary days and icy nights beseeching him to
withdraw the decree of excommunication strikes the imagination to the
exclusion of the sequel of the story. Four years after the experience
of Canossa, the "penitent" emperor, accompanied by his antipope,
brought an army to Rome and made Gregory fly to Castel Sant' Angelo.
The people abandoned the cause of the great Hildebrand, betrayed Rome
to the enemy at its gates and deposed their lawful pope. But imperial
vengeance for a humiliation which had been undertaken to satisfy the
superstition of the vulgar did not end there. Henry V. exacted from
Paschal II. a further penalty, and while Europe looked on in apathy,
the Pope and his cardinals were made prisoners and a number of priests
were drawn through the mud at the horses' tails as the imperial troops
rode off. Gelasius II. was seized in the conclave which elected him,
trampled underfoot and chained in a tower belonging to the Frangipani.
Rescued by the Romans of Trastevere and the Island, he is next found
hiding in the _Borgo_ from the emperor, who pursued him in his flight
to Gaeta, annulled his election and proclaimed an antipope. On the
Pope's return to Rome he was entrapped at a mass in S. Prassede, but
escaping to the meadows by S. Paul's where he was found weeping with
the women of the neighbourhood, he died an exile in a Cluniac convent
in France.
[Illustration: BRONZE STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS ON THE CAPITOL
Placed here by Michael Angelo in 1538, who removed it from the
Lateran Piazza. It owed its preservation to the belief that it
represented Constantine. To the right and left are the museums of
the Capitol. In the rear is the Palace of the Senator overlooking
the Forum. See pages 13-15, 57, 58, 241.]
In 1144 the Romans determined to restore their free Senate and
demanded, under Arnold of Brescia's influence, the abolition of the
temporal power. Lucius II. stormed the Capitol and died defending his
rights, but his successor was forced to fly the eternal city. Our one
English Pope, who possessed the fine old English sounding name of
Nicholas Breakspear, declared on his death bed that the Pope of Rome
must find means to content the sordid soul of the Roman people or quit
his throne and his city a fugitive. Indeed nothing is more
noticeable than the strict impartiality with which the Romans meted
out violence to popes good and bad; and exactly a century before they
were deposing the great Hildebrand, they could have been seen
outraging the body of the infamous Boniface VII., surnamed "Francone,"
whose bleeding corpse was kicked and rolled down the streets of Rome
to the foot of the statue of the good Marcus Aurelius. In the same
century which saw the English Hadrian IV. reigning in Rome, two German
archbishops led troops against a pope. The Romans, as usual, required
the vanquished pope to abdicate, and accepted Barbarossa as their
ruler, who gave them an antipope. Of one emperor at this time it could
be truthfully said that he had "the whole College of Cardinals in his
pay" which affords some notion of the spiritual dignity of conclaves,
while the ups and downs to which the papal rulers of Rome were subject
is illustrated in the case of Pope Alexander who in the same twelfth
century was received with open arms after ten years' exile by the
fickle people, who however duly stoned his coffin when he died.
Clement III., himself a Roman, was obliged to sanction once more the
powers of the Roman Senate, and to hand over to the people part of the
tolls. Innocent IV. fled to Genoa, this time from fear of the emperor,
who afterwards kept him a prisoner in his own Lateran palace. Even a
Boniface VIII. narrowly escaped being kidnapped by the French King and
died most miserably in the Vatican. Benedict XI., the saintly Venetian
pope, attempted to punish the perpetrators of this outrage, but had
to withdraw his Bulls, and retire himself to Perugia. The election of
his successor the French Pope Clement V. was followed by the exile of
the popes in Avignon, and since their return to Rome in 1377 the popes
have not belied their character for alternately inspiring and flying
from violence foreign and internecine.
That mute but eloquent parable in stone is the real synthesis of the
history of the papacy--the episcopal palace by the tomb of the
Apostle, in the first Christian church, at one end, and at the other
the fortress which was once a pagan emperor's mausoleum, with its
dungeons and its history, secret and open, of crime and bloodshed; and
between these the covered way along which the popes pass and repass
from one to the other, symbol not of the separation but of the fateful
conjunction of spiritual and temporal which has haunted their history.
It would, indeed, be strange if ages of barbarism could have secured
to the first Christian bishop the honour and safety which can now be
assured to him by that civilisation and tolerance which we have
substituted for "the ages of faith"; and United Italy must have a long
future ahead of it before it can have heaped on the popes one
hundredth part of the indignities and sufferings which they underwent
when nominally masters of Rome. But such modern conditions have not
always prevailed, and those who in all ages have waged war against the
theory of the temporal power--saints and philosophers--ought to have
recognised that at one period of European history territorial
lordship, feudal rank and power, were a necessity. The Church did not
create and did not choose the feudal system, which was indeed opposed
in principle to the spirit and teaching of Christ's Gospel, and the
days have long since gone by when "secular grandeur guaranteed to the
Church her religious integrity"--nevertheless these days once existed,
and then the Catholic Church was as a strong man armed _cap a pie_
fighting for life, and leaving to the individual--the saintly bishop,
the saintly clerk or layman--the task of softening the rigours and
planing the roughnesses of a Christian system which was also at war
with itself. Although it is true that no form of the popes' temporal
sway has at any time secured to the papacy the benefits that have been
alleged for it by ultramontane writers since 1870, and conversely true
that the events of 1870 did not deprive the pope of those benefits,
yet it is also perfectly true that the papacy has been, through the
centuries, the means of preserving for Italy its ancient character of
a world power, and of preserving for Rome, abandoned by Constantine
and his successors to the fate of a small provincial town, cowering in
its own ruins and filth, the prestige and significance of the city
which ruled the world. It is the successors of Peter who have
perpetuated the meaning of its title "the Eternal City," and have
carried on, through fine weather and foul, the immortality of
Augustus. This surely constitutes the papacy's chief claim on Italy's
consideration.
There is, moreover, a curious and subtile, but perfectly
comprehensible, tie between Italy and the popes, to which expression
was given by the priest-philosopher Gioberti in his book on "The
Primacy" already quoted. The Italian who never goes to church, nay the
Italian who believes in no Church--and in Italy he is not at all
necessarily the same person--contemplates the papal primacy with
pleasure and pride, and considers with approval the phenomenon which
brings the rest of Europe to kiss the foot of an Italian. He is
perfectly aware, on the one side, that the Christian primacy--which is
an Italian primacy--adds lustre and a cosmopolitan atmosphere to the
city and the land which was the cradle of modern civilisation; and in
some undefinable, yet I think definite, way he sees in it a
compensation for the glory which has departed from his land of
glories, a tangible pledge and earnest of that world-mastery whose
sceptre is now wrenched from his hands.
[Illustration: S. PETER'S FROM THE PINCIAN GARDENS
See pages 16, 100, 135.]
The modern ultramontane has accustomed the modern simple faithful to
an historical picture which has had, as we see, no existence in fact:
the Vatican standing solemn and decorous, at its Bronze Gate the Swiss
Guard; the papal sovereignty and the papal troops--disbanded, these
latter, by evil men in 1870--guaranteeing to pope and cardinal the
freedom of their sacred ministry both within and without the papal
confines. It is only since 1870 that such a picture can be seen, in
miniature, and within the walls of the Vatican, under the respectful
tutelage of a united Italy which now surrounds the solemn and decorous
palace, certainly not the least turbulent centre of Europe before
1870.
II. _Since 1870_
The pretension of the popes to wield "the two swords" had ever been a
fruitful cause of friction in Europe; but in Rome the immense
spiritual claims of the papacy joined to the claim that the Pope was
_de jure divino_ monarch of monarchs, and could command the sword of
princes in carrying out his ecclesiastical behests, wore a unique
aspect, for here the Pope was in actual possession of the temporal
sword, and ruled the bodies as well as the souls of men. The civil
supremacy of the State is, indeed, a permanent conquest of the age in
which we live, and the last European stronghold of the opposing theory
was to be seen in Rome itself.
It is interesting therefore to notice that it was for internal civil
reform that the Romans were agitating during the last years before
1870. The interference of the clergy in municipal administration was
an intolerable grievance, and municipal reforms were still being urged
on the Pope in 1857. The agitators were chiefly to be found among the
lawyers and doctors, the educated _bourgeoisie_--always a minority in
Rome--who were joined by a few heads and scions of great families. But
in the previous pontificate "demonstrations" in favour of the falling
papacy had still been engineered in Rome. Incited by a cardinal the
people would take the horses out of Gregory XVI.'s carriage, and drag
the Pope in procession; but the venal demonstrators had each his own
personal petition to present, and when, shortly afterwards, one of
the principal demonstrators assassinated his wife and aggravated the
murder by brutally locking her in a room so that she might expire
without assistance, the tender conscience of his comrades was outraged
to find that Gregory sent him to the gallows without hesitation. The
mercenary troops--the recruited refuse of all nations--described by an
eye witness as "a drunken rabble," were also a thorn in the side of
the Romans. The character of these papal supporters was in general so
infamous that _soldato del papa_ was a proverbial contumely: they were
the defenders of Rome in September 1870, under a German Swiss colonel,
appointed general for the occasion, whose opponent, Cadorna, an
officer of very different standing, wrote the history of the siege.
In the thirty-four years that have since elapsed, the millennium has
certainly not come in Italy, nor is everything better than it was
before. But at least everything has a chance of being better. Some of
the things which the popes were asked to concede, especially as
regards penal procedure, are not bettered to-day, for the Italian laws
though in certain departments they are ideal schemes of legislation
are in practice very frequently dead letters--and some of the crimes
which made old Rome hideous have ceased owing to the very simple
expedient of lighting the streets at night.
The _Statuto_, the constitution of united Italy, begins with a
declaration that the religion of the State is the Catholic religion.
The Pope's relation to the State was defined by "the Law of
Guarantees" in 1871. His status is not that of a subject, but of a
sovereign, though of a sovereign without territorial possessions. He
is, however, sovereign in his palaces of the Vatican, Lateran, and
Cancelleria, which with the papal country seat of Castel Gandolfo
still belong to him. Within the Vatican he can and does maintain certain
companies of soldiers and guards, and _extraterritorialisation_
applies to the Vatican precinct, no Italian official having any right
to enter there unless invited to do so. Foreign nations can accredit
ambassadors and ministers plenipotentiary to the Pope's court, and he
can maintain ambassadors, or nunzios, at foreign courts. The
archbasilicas of S. Peter's, S. John Lateran, and S. Maria Maggiore,
also belong to the Pope, and their possession enabled Leo XIII. to
refuse any one of the great basilicas for the marriage of the present
King of Italy. The palace of Santa Maria Maggiore was confirmed to the
popes in compensation for the loss of the Quirinal, and this
territory, like all the other palaces churches and villas named, is
_papal_ territory, not Italian territory. In addition, the Law of
Guarantees provides that a sum of L130,000 (three and a quarter
million francs) should be paid annually to the popes as a compensation
for their revenue. This has never been accepted. The Law was intended
to secure the Pope's complete independence of the Italian Crown, a
matter which it was felt would be jealously watched over by other
Catholic States; it guarantees his complete personal and
administrative independence in the government of the Church, and in
his and his agents' communication with countries outside Italy. That
the popes have never been satisfied with it their continued protest
and invocation of the liberty and dignity of temporal sovereignty
amply proves.
The relation of Church and State in Italy is like that in other
Catholic countries. The entire revenue of the papal States passed of
course into the hands of the Italian Government, which also took over
the revenues of such institutions as _Propaganda Fide_. A _Fondo
Culto_ was created, and the nation continued to administer the
ecclesiastical revenues of the country for the same objects as did the
Pope. It pays the stipends of the parish priests, and a project has
just been matured for increasing these in parishes where they are less
than 1000 francs (L40) a year. Only in May of last year (1904) the
_Camera_ had under discussion the relief of the lower and unbeneficed
clergy, and of the poorer provincial seminaries for training priests.
Bishops and canons cannot become possessed of their "temporalities"
without the royal _exequatur_, and all public religious fabrics
throughout the country belong to the State. Where the ecclesiastical
face of Italy has been changed is in the suppression and expropriation
of its monasteries and religious houses--the historical sites (with
their treasures) have been declared national monuments, the gradual
suppression of the communities which inhabited them has been provided
for by a law forbidding the profession of new members, and the
monastic revenues have been partly converted into insignificant
pensions--varying from two francs to fifty centimes a day--paid to
each individual of the suppressed communities. That the law has not
been pressed with great severity by the tolerant Italian Government is
evidenced in the fact that communities still exist who have escaped
final confiscation for thirty-eight years by silently adding to their
number so that it might never fall below the fatal six which spelt
dissolution. At the end of the century there were still 13,875
religious who under this law were in receipt of 176,000 pounds. As to
Rome itself, the Religious Congregations have proved that it has not
been made an insupportable place of residence for them. The historic
houses are national monuments, and the ancient communities are only
recruited _sub rosa_, but new "Mother Houses" of all the great orders
are taking possession of commanding sites in Rome, the illegal
"professions" take place every day, and the number of monks, friars,
and religious of both sexes is considerably larger than it was before
1870. So true is it that no district, hardly a street, in Rome is
without its convent, that it has been wittily declared that the
"temporal power" is in fact returning in this way--and Rome is again
in roods and acres becoming ecclesiastical property.
It is difficult to suppose that we are near a conciliation between the
Pope and Italy, or that there is still time for a satisfactory
coalition between the conservative forces of law and order in the
country and the moral forces of Catholicism against the inrush of the
subversive forces of socialism and political radicalism. Many of the
best men on the Italian side would indeed deplore any reconciliation
with the Pope at present on the ground that it would involve a check
to the civil progress of the Italian people. Meanwhile the Italians
are certainly not becoming more religious under a system which assumes
that if you are a good citizen you cannot be "a good Catholic," and it
is for the popes to determine whether the irreligion of the people is
or is not too heavy a price to pay for the upkeep of their protest
against the events of 1870. The consequent alienation of some of the
better religious elements in the country is, at least, doing serious
harm in that it makes the abler men outside doubt whether the
religious elements which remain are worthy to be regarded as in any
sense a moral force which could be invoked to co-operate with the best
modern secular forces.
Meanwhile the opposing factions have been face to face for thirty-four
years. How have they behaved, and how have they altered since then?
The official Vatican behaviour never varied until Pius X. ascended the
Chair of Peter. Pius IX. had set the example of violent public
utterances, and had permitted the subsidised clerical newspapers to
attack Victor Emmanuel both in his private and public character. On
the other hand he would never tolerate in his presence a word against
the King, and his own letters to him were not only friendly but
affectionate. This little comedy scandalised the Italian's sense of
decorum, and as a policy has succeeded in alienating Italian sympathy.
The general tendency on the secular side has been conciliatory; the
Italians, indeed, began with a farce on the morrow of their entry into
Rome, a farce duly recorded in the name of the street which runs past
the church of the _Gesu_. The _plebiscite_ registered the will of the
"whites" but not the will of the "blacks," none of whom voted; and the
forty-six votes against the new _regime_ which appeared in the total,
had been cast by the "whites" themselves. Nevertheless the Catholics
in Rome who do not make a _politica_ of their religion, willingly
allow that they enjoy a large measure of liberty. Not long since at
the request of the visiting chaplain the authorities arranged for a
man to be brought back to the prison where his wife was still
undergoing sentence, in order that their civil marriage might be
completed with the religious rite. For some years past the present
Cardinal Vicar of Rome has administered the Easter Communion to the
inmates of the _Regina Coeli_ prison to the joy of the prison
officials and the reciprocal consolation of the cardinal and the black
sheep whom he that day bears home on his shoulder rejoicing. It is
well known that the officers encourage the men to attend to their
religious duties at Easter, and remind them of these as the seasons
come round. Every soldier may then have leave of absence for
confession and communion, and a rule is made requiring all men out on
leave in this way to bring back with them the Communion ticket which
is given at the rails to each Easter communicant. Many of the soldiers
choose to go to S. Peter's, and the carabineers in their sober black
uniforms may always be seen there during Holy Week.
It will readily be understood that both incongruities and
accommodations are rife in such a condition of affairs as the
existence of a State Church by the side of a hostile papacy. The King
wants a regimental banner blest, or the Pope wants to have the roads
kept while fifty thousand pilgrims flock to S. Peter's. During the
latter years of Leo XIII.'s pontificate the Italian police were
invited into the basilica, and headed a procession with all the
decorum of its traditional vergers, the _Sampietrini_. These
reciprocal interests even require telephonic communication between the
Quirinal and the Vatican. In theory, the House of Savoy, the members
of the Government and every person in its pay down to the _custodi_ of
the ruins and museums of Rome with their families are excommunicated.
In practice the Pope provides a chaplain for the Royal palace, the
parish priest has of late years entered the Quirinal and penetrated to
the royal bedrooms for the customary blessing of houses on Easter eve,
Italian officials and their families receive absolution like any one
else, and the irony of history required that the "excommunicated"
Queen Margaret of Savoy was the only princely personage to fulfil the
conditions of the last Jubilee year in Rome.
[Illustration: FROM THE TERRACE OF THE HOUSE OF DOMITIAN
Before us is the church built on the site of the Temple of Venus and
Rome and dedicated to S. Francesca Romana, the greatest of Roman
saints. To the left the huge ruins of the basilica of the first
Christian emperor, while to the right is the Arch of Titus,
commemorating the fall of Jerusalem, and the road with its _via
crucis_ which leads to the church of S. Bonaventura, the biographer
of S. Francis, built against the Stadium of Domitian.
The view is taken from the terrace outside that domestic basilica of
the Flavian House which still retains more of the form of a
Christian basilica than any other pagan building. Here are brought
together the old and the new, Christian and pagan, papal and
imperial--the shock of the two world empires. See interleaf, pages
44, 50.]
And the "blacks and the whites"? In the "eighties" the distinction
between those who clung to the old _regime_ and those who adopted the
new was still sufficiently marked, but in the last decade of the
century the "blacks" became "gray" or as they themselves liked to
express it _caffe-latte_, neither black nor white. The acceptance
of invitations to the Quirinal has, up to now, entailed the forfeiture
of those official invitations to the Vatican which are extended to the
Roman aristocracy for every great papal function. Many of its older
members still absent themselves from all official "white" receptions,
and a daughter is still presented not at the Court but to the Pope,
with her _fiance_, on her engagement. But in private society the great
"black" ladies now know and meet the "white" society with which many
of the Roman families are related by marriage; and it is not
infrequently the case that one branch of an old Roman house clings to
the Pope while another attaches itself to the King. But everywhere,
even where the parents absent themselves from official "white"
society, their children now go to the Quirinal. Thus we are very far
from the time when no member of the Roman aristocracy met the King or
Queen, when the Court was entirely composed of new men, or the
Piedmontese whom the King brought with him. The day has gone by when
even in a ball-room the "blacks" took care to label themselves by
wearing a yellow (papal) rose, and only priests and the English
converts still make a point of not saluting the sovereign. One Roman
prince, however, has kept up a picturesque protest--and the great door
of Prince Lancellotti's palace has never been opened since the day the
King of Italy entered the Pope's capital. Even when, quite recently,
invitations to a ball were issued from the great silent house, all the
guests crowded through the postern door.
When one asks any of the old school now whether the old Government did
well or ill, the best, and the wisest, answer that they can give us is
"They were _altri tempi_, other times." And this is the reason why it
is impossible that the two parties should continue to exist after the
present generation. The cleavage has really been due to the fact that
the Vatican and Quirinal parties live in two different epochs; they
live in different worlds and speak a different language. The old
fashioned "blacks" can only think in a circle of ideas and sentiments,
political and moral, to which they were born but which has no present
point of contact with reality, with the living world around them, with
"things as they are." The old has its beauty and the new has its
uglinesses, as always; but also they frequently change these
positions. Fifteen years ago one of the most distinguished Italian
diocesans wrote a pamphlet entitled "_Roma e l'Italia, e la realta
delle cose, pensieri di un prelato italiano_"--"Rome, Italy, and
things as they are; thoughts of an Italian Prelate." As soon as his
name was discovered, he was told to withdraw the pamphlet, publicly
from his own pulpit. This was not encouraging to others who thought as
he in a country where secular public opinion still counts for so
little, the individual "courage of your opinions" counts for still
less, and where a public opinion among ecclesiastics is simply
non-existent. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, a
Cardinal Secretary of State had the courage of his opinions as the
following passages from his Memoirs will prove. He is known for his
protection of the Jesuits against the Jansenists during his sojourn in
Paris as papal Envoy Extraordinary, and by the Pacca law, which is
called after him, prohibiting private owners from disposing of great
works of art out of Italy. "Providence," he writes, "has taken away
the temporal power from the Holy See and prepared those changes in
States and Governments which shall once more render it possible for
the Pope, although a subject, to rule over and govern the whole body
of the faithful." "The popes, relieved from the burden of the temporal
power which obliged them to devote a great part of their time to
secular affairs, may now turn all their attention and all their care
to the spiritual government of the Church; and when the Roman Church
lacks the pomp and magnificence which temporal sovereignty has given
her, then there will be numbered among her clergy only those who
_bonum opus desiderant_."
That pathetic combatant for papal rights in the twelfth century
Gelasius II., exclaimed to his cardinals "We must leave Rome, where it
is impossible to stay." That plaintive cry need, we trust, have no
further echo: the ages of which Gregorovius writes that popes "were
obliged to leave Rome to realise in foreign countries that they were
still actually reverenced as representatives of Christ" closed, we
hope, with the entry of the Italians into Rome and the consequent
creation--in lieu of the elusive "_Roma intangibile_"--of what
Bismarck happily called an "intangible Vatican."
Index
Abruzzi, Abruzzese, 153, 155, 188
Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici, 221
Accoramboni, Vittoria, 167
Acilii Glabriones, 45
Adelbert, S., 8
Adonis, 90
_Aedes publica_, 31
Aeneas, 2, 130
Aesculapius, 7, 8
Agape, 46
Ager (agro), 1, 15, 70-1, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 90
Agricultural colonies, 11, 76
Agrippa, 20, 22, 30
Alabaster, 27
Alaric, 37
Alba Longa, 1, 2, 15
Alban hills, 17, 23, 70, 78
Albani, 171
Alexander III., 241
Alexander Severus, 22, 32, 63
_Alta Semita_, 55
Altar, 19, 20, 35, 186;
position of priest at, 36, 186
Altieri, 172
_Ambarvalia_, 15
Amphitheatre, 22, 31, 33, 163
Anacletus II., 161
Ancus Martius, 5, 26
Anguillara, 60, 162, 168
Animals, cruelty to, 81, 88, 129, 147-8, 155;
Leo XIII. and, 148
Anio, 24
Annibaldi, 168
Anselm, S., 5
Antonelli, Cardinal, 202, 219
Antonines, 11
Antoninus Pius, 32, 197
Antony, S., 68, 148
Apostles, 42, 48, 199
Appian Way, 30, 41, 45, 70, 168
Appius Claudius, 21
Apprentice, 67
Apse, 19, 35, 36
Aqueducts, 21, 22, 30, 31, 37, 39, 73
Arabesques, 29
Arcadians, 2
Arch, 36;
of Janus, 162
Arches, triumphal, 33;
of Constantine, 32, 162;
of Septimius Severus, 32;
of Titus, 31, 162;
of Trajan, 31
Architraves, 19, 36
Arenula, 56
Aristocracy, 94, 99, 109, 132, 135, 159, 160, 170, 172, 173, 174,
178, 215, 221, 245, 253
Arnold of Brescia, 240
Augustus, 4, 10, 12, 23, 25, 29, 30, 31, 53, 54, 55, 57, 74, 164, 243;
house of, 10, 30;
mausoleum of, 30, 164, 242
Aurelian, Emperor, 6, 32;
wall, 32, 38, 43, 163
Aurelii, 45
Aurelius, Marcus, 32, 46, 55, 63, 197, 241
_Ave Maria_, 232
Aventine, 26, 30, 160, 202, 227
Avignon, exile in, 6, 14, 57, 242
_Baioccho_, 105
Balbo, Cesare, 235
_Baldacchino_, 10, 177, 211
_Balnae_, 20
Bambin Gesu, image in Ara Coeli, 230;
convent of the, 223
Banners, regional, 55, 57, 58, 59
Baptism, 231
Barbarossa, 241
Barberini, 9, 10, 171
Barbers, street, 101
Baronial towers. _See_ Towers
Bartholomew, S., 7
Basilica, Christian, 33, 34, 36, 50, 67, 186, 209;
domestic, 34, 35;
Flavian, 35;
forensic, 19, 20, 24, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37;
Julia, 20, 30;
Ulpian, 31
Baths, public, 19-21, 24, 30, 31, 39, 54, 61, 99
Beggars, 11-12, 54, 99
Belli, Gioacchino, 140
Bell towers. _See_ Towers
Benedict XI., 241
Benedict XIII., 167
Benedict XIV., 59, 178
Benedict, S., 78
Beneficent clubs, 68
Beneventum, 7
_Berretta_, 204, 205, 209
Bibulus, 29
Bismarck, 255
"Blacks" and "Whites," 252-4
Boatmen's guild, 63
Bombardment of Rome, 212
Bonaparte, 171
Boncompagni, 170
Boniface VII., 241
Boniface VIII., 164, 165, 167, 168, 201, 241
"Book of the Art," 84, 86
Borghese, 123, 170, 171, 174
Borgo, 55, 90, 228, 240
Bracciano, 17, 168;
duke of, 167
Braschi, 173
Breakspear, Nicholas, 240
_Breccias_, 27
Bricks, 23, 25, 37
Brigands, 11, 54, 89, 96, 150
Buffalo Bill, 89
Building crisis, 12
Burial guilds, 8, 42, 63, 77
_Butteri_, 89, 90
_Buzzuri_, 138
Byzantium, Byzantine, 42, 137, 234
Cadorna, General, 246
Caecilia Metella, 29, 168
Caecilii, 45, 46
Caelian hill, 5, 31, 53, 202
Caesar, Julius, 29, 30
Caesarius, S., 74
Caetani, 164, 168, 177
Cafe, 101, 142
_Cafoni_, 138
Calabria, Calabrese, 126, 139, 155
Caligula, 31
Callistus, catacomb of, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46;
Pope, 42 _n._;
Callistus III. 60
_Camorra_, 139, 139 _n._
Campagna, 17, 21, 38, 69-80, 83, 89-92, 107, 228;
cattle in, 77;
cities, ancient, of, 72;
deaths in the, 77, 90, 143;
malaria in, 74-5;
towns of, 78, 107
Campitelli, _rione_, 56
Campo de' Fiori, 219
Campo Marzo (Campus Martius), 18, 22, 30, 33, 37, 55, 59, 60, 163, 228
Campo Vaccino, 61, 62
_Cancellum_, 19, 35
Candelabra, 36
Canon law, 238
Canon, a, of S. M. in Trastevere, 232
Canonisation, 50
Canossa, 239
Capitol, 4, 18, 28, 30, 31, 38, 56, 57, 58, 130, 135, 161, 169,
172, 173, 240
_Capo d'arte_, 66
_Capo rione_, 57, 58
_Cappa magna_, 209
Captains, regional, 54, 55, 56, 58
Carabineers, 150, 151, 151 _n._, 225
Caracalla, 20, 21, 32
Cardinal, Bishops, 201, 205;
Chamberlain, 210;
deacons, 201, 202, 205;
priests, 201, 202, 205;
vicar, 201, 251
Cardinal's dress, 204, 206, 209, 210;
hat, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209;
vicar, 201
Cardinals, 15, 58, 159, 175, 200-211, 225, 228, 240, 241
Cardinals, College of, 15, 201, 202, 205, 210, 241, 252
Carnival, 58
Carrara marble, 25
Carters, carts, 63, 72, 88, 90, 96, 228
Caserta, 168, 177
Cassandrino, 141
Castel Gandolfo, 171, 247
Castel Sant' Angelo, 56, 239, 242
_Castelli Romani_, 71, 78, 79
Catacombs, 196;
art in 46;
number of, 43;
prayers for dead in, 48-9;
testimony of the, 47-8
Catholicism and the Catholic Church, 45, 47, 137, 181, 184, 195,
199, 236, 243;
and Catholic clergy, 137, 248, 254
Celestine III., 167
_Cella_, 18, 19
Cement, use of, 24, 27, 37
Cenci, Cencius, 168, 169;
Beatrice, 160;
Bolognetti, 169;
Johannes, 169;
Marcus, 169;
Virginius, 169
Centurion, 54
Cestian bridge. _See pons_
Chapter of S. Peter's, 67, 209
Charioteers, 33, 63
Charities, Roman, 11, 56, 66, 174, 217, 223
Charlemagne, 14, 237
Chigi, 170;
Agostino, 171
Chivalry, 5, 112
Chrism ("confirmation"), 231
Christians, early, 34, 42, 47
Church and State, 248
Churches--
S. Adriano, 202;
S. Anastasia, 2;
SS. Andrea and Gregorio, 161, 202;
S. Angelo in Pescheria, 56;
SS. Apostoli, 232;
Ara Coeli, 57, 86, 161, 230;
S. Barbara, 66;
S. Bartholomew, 8;
SS. Bonifacio and Alessio, 202;
S. Caterina de' Funari, 66;
Chiesa Nuova, 56;
S. Clemente, 202;
SS. Cosma and Damiano, 32;
S. Croce, 35;
S. Domitilla (catacomb), 187;
S. Eligio dei Ferrai, 68;
S. Eusebio, 202;
S. Eustachio, 56;
S. Francesca Romana, 32;
S. Giorgio in Velabro, 202;
S. Giovanni Calibita, 7;
S. Giuseppe degli Falegnami, 66;
S. John Beheaded, 86;
S. John Lateran, 35, 36, 247;
S. Lorenzo in Lucina, 226;
S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 32, 66;
S. Luigi, 173;
S. Marcello, 161;
S. Marco, 230;
S. Maria degli Angeli, 21;
S. Maria in Aquiro, 202;
S. Maria Aventinense (_see_ Priory of Malta);
S. Maria in Cosmedin, 7, 31, 186;
S. Maria in Capella, 229;
S. Maria in Domnica, 187;
S. Maria Maggiore, 23, 34, 60, 171, 187, 223, 231, 247;
S. Maria dell' Orto, 66, 229;
SS. Nereo and Achilleo, 187;
S. Paul's-without-the-Walls, 36, 240;
S. Peter's, 10, 16, 32, 38, 41, 42, 67, 196, 247, 251, 252;
S. Prassede, 240;
S. Prisca, 202;
S. Sabina, 186;
S. Silvestro in Capite, 166;
S. Stefano, Via Latina, 187;
S. Tommaso a' Cenci, 66, 169
Cippolino, 27
Circolo San Pietro, 76, 222
Circus, 19, 26, 33;
Maximus, 30
_Civis romanus_, 181, 199
Claudius, 26, 31, 181
Clement, Pope, 14
Clement III., 241
Clement V., 242
Clement IX., 172
Clement XI., 171
Clement XII., 171
Clement XIII., 146
Clementi, 156 _n._
_Clivus capitolinus_, 30
_Cloacae_, 18, 39
Cloisters, 36, 38
Cluilian Ditch, 15
Coaches, bambino's, 230;
pope's, 217, 231, 245;
cardinal's and prince's, 173, 207, 208, 210
Cohorts, 54
_Collegio_, 63, 64, 65, 66
_Colles_, 53
_Collina_, 53
Colonies, agricultural, 11, 76
Colonna, 55, 162, 163, 164-7, 170, 172;
Lorenzo, 165;
Marc' Antonio, 165;
Sciarra, 164;
Stephen, 165;
Vittoria, 165
Colosseum, 11, 22, 32, 39, 162
Coltello, 145
Columns, 33, 38;
of Marcus Aurelius, 32;
of Trajan, 31, 142
_Comitium_, 4
Commemorative banquets, 63
Communes, Roman, 13, 59, 64;
Italian, 14, 179
Communion, Easter, 223, 251;
first, 222, 223;
tickets, 223, 224, 251
Conciliation. _See_ Pope and Italy
_Conciliatore_, 110-111
Conclave, 58, 210-11, 241
Concrete, use of, 24, 25, 27, 28, 37
_Confessio_, 36, 50
Confession, 222, 223, 251
Confraternities, 67, 68
Confraternity of Prayer and Death, 67, 143;
red, 8, 229
Congregations, Roman, 203, 249;
of women in Rome, 220, 228, 230
Consistory, secret, 204;
public, 204
Constantine, 31, 32, 34, 37, 42, 162, 237, 243
Consular families, 13, 34, 63
Conti, 160
Corinthian pillars, 19
Cornelius, pope, 45
Corporations, 62, 63
Corte Savella, 160
Corsi, 161
Corsini, 171
Corso, 9, 59, 93, 100, 101, 115, 141, 161, 172, 220, 221;
Vittorio Emanuele, 169
Cosmati, 36
Courtship, 152-3
Crime, 81, 139, 145-6, 149, 246
_Croce Rossa_, 75
Crostarosa, Mons., 34 _n._
Curatii and Horatii, 15
Curator, regional, 53, 54, 64
Curia, 201, 203
_Curiae_, 154
Curule chairs, 197
Customs officers, 64, 103
Dante, 9
Deacons of Rome, 55, 200, 201, 202
Decimal system, 105
Decoration, 25, 28, 29
Deffand, Marquise du, 226
Democracy, 114, 115, 194
De Rossi, 44
Destruction of city. _See_ Rome
Diaconate, the, 200
Diocletian, 20, 21, 32, 33, 61;
museum, 29
_Dio in terra_, 216
_Dispetto_, 134
District courts, 110
_Divin amore_ festa, 234
Doctors, guild of, 63
Dogma, 47, 50, 56, 64
Domitian, 30, 31;
house of, 31, 35
_Domui_, 23
Donation of Constantine, 237
Don, 178
Donna, 178
Door charms, 234
Doria Pamphili, 68, 172, 221
Doric columns, 19
Dowries, 12, 56, 66, 67
Dress of Romans, 141
Dyers, guild of, 63
Easter. _See_ Communion
Egypt, 7, 25, 180, 183
Esquilina, 55
Esquiline, 5, 53, 55, 202
Etruscans, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 70, 181, 182, 197
Eucharist, 46, 47, 49, 196, 197
Eugenius IV., 165
Evander, 2
Evil eye, 231
Exarchate, 13, 14, 42
_Excubitoria_, 56
_Exequatur_, 248
Exorcism, 81, 82-3, 187, 222
Extraterritorialisation, 247
Extreme unction, 192
Fabrician bridge. _See pons_
Family life in Italy, 116-17, 155;
Rome, 97, 154, 155
Farms in the campagna, 33, 71, 72, 73, 77
Fattore, 77
Faustulus, 2
_Fedeli_, 59
_Festa_, 100, 102, 156, 204, 224, 228
Feudalism, 112, 160, 162, 243
Fever, goddess, 74
"Field of Cows," 38, 61, 62
Firemen, 54
Flavian house, 12, 31, 35, 45
Florence. _See_ Tuscany
Fluor-spar, 27
_Fondo culto_, 248
Fortress, military, 23, 38
_Fortuna Virilis_. _See_ Temples
Forum, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 56, 59, 61, 66, 147, 231
_Forum Romanum_, 4, 15, 18, 20, 30, 31, 147
Fountains, street, 21, 33, 39, 93, 175
Francis, S., 8, 189, 195
Franciscans, 8, 189, 229
Frangipani, 161, 240
Franks, 65
Frascati, 171
French kings, 14, 241;
Revolution, 146, 238
Fresco painting, 29, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47
Friezes, 19, 28, 37, 61
Gaeta, 202, 214, 215, 236
Gaetani, 164, 168, 177
Galera, 168
Gardens, 33, 39, 93
Garibaldi, 118, 123
Gates of Rome, 100, 207
Gelasius II., 168, 240, 255
Genazzano, 79, 83, 166;
madonna of, 83
Genseric, 37
_Gentes_, 13, 14, 45, 70
_Gentiluomo_, 208, 209
Genzano, 79
George, S., 74
Germanicus, house of, 29, 157
Geta, 32
Ghetto, 7, 11, 56, 219, 230
Ghibellines, 60, 162, 163
_Giallo Antico_, 27
Gioberti, 235, 236, 244
_Giulio_, 105
Giustiniani, 173
Gladiators, 22, 63
Goat herd, 38
Goatskin breeches, 90
"Golden book," 172
Golden house of Nero, 29
Governor of Rome, 222
_Graffiti_, 44
Gratian, 37
Grazioli, 172
Greece, 3, 7, 8, 13, 18, 20, 25, 27, 45, 129, 130, 182, 183,
186, 197
Gregory the Great, 11
Gregory VII., 239
Gregory XI., 57
Gregory XIII., 170
Gregory XVI., 213, 218, 219, 245
_Grosso_, 105
Grotta Ferrata, 166
Grotto of Lupercus, 2
_Guardia_, 144, 149, 150, 151
Guelphs, 60, 162, 163
Guilds, trade, 52, 58, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68;
conditions of membership, 64, 66;
funds, 65;
patrons, 63, 64;
religious, 63;
under State control, 64;
statutes, 66
Guiscard, Robert, 37
Gymnasia, Greek, 20
Hadrian, Emperor, 23, 31, 32, 37
Hadrian's mausoleum, 23, 32, 37
Hadrian IV., pope, 78, 240, 241
Handicrafts, 52, 58, 63
Hannibal, 168
Heliogabalus, 32
Henry IV., 239
Henry V., 240
Heraldic Commission, 179
Hildebrand, 240, 241
"Hill of goats," 38
Hill villages, 71, 78
Holidays, Roman, 100
Holy See, the, 201, 207, 218, 255;
vacancy of, 210
Honorius I., 32
Honorius IV., 160, 161
Horatii and Curatii, 15
House of Savoy, 115, 252
Humbert, King, 115
Hymettan marble, 27
Industrial classes, 62, 63, 66, 141, 228
Innkeepers, guild of the, 63
Innocent III., 160
Innocent IV., 241
Innocent XI., 172
Inn of the Bear, 9
_In petto_, 204
_Insulae_, 23
Ionic columns, 19
Ironworkers' guild, 58, 68
Isis, 183
Island of the Tiber, 240
_Isola sacra_, 240
Italian art, 123-5, 127, 191;
Catholicism, 81, 91, 188-196;
characteristics, 112-122;
crowds, 121;
cruelty, 81, 146-7, 155;
democracy, 114, 115, 193-5;
garden, 73;
"individualism," 115-116, 183;
women, 153-55
Italians and English, 112-124, 132, 145, 146, 151, 153-155, 157,
190, 191, 194-196;
and French, 112, 119-122, 133, 145, 146;
and Germans, 112, 117, 122, 123, 131, 145, 146, 153, 157, 190,
196;
and Irish, 120, 126
Janiculum, the, 5, 16, 17, 171, 207, 227
Jasper, 27
Jerome, S., 37, 200
_Jettatura_, 231
Jews, in Rome, 5, 7, 45, 46, 160, 161, 180, 181-2, 183, 188,
198, 199;
bonnet, 46;
of the dispersion, 45;
quarter, 7, 56, 169
John X., 168
Jubilee year, 217, 252
Jupiter (Jove), 18, 28, 30, 37, 78, 130, 131, 181, 182
Justin Martyr, 46
Kitchens, Roman, 54, 94, 98, 99, 101, 108
Kitchen range, 98
La Marmora, General, 123
Lancellotti, Prince, 253
_Lapis lazuli_, 27
_Lares compitales_, 53
Larva, 27
Latin league, 69, 78;
religion, 91, 92, 181, 182, 183, 193, 194, 196, 197
Latium, 1, 2, 70, 71, 146, 147 _n._, 181, 196
Law of guarantees, 247
Laws, Italian, 149, 246
Leo IV., 6
Leo IX., 161
Leo X., 13
Leo XIII., 148, 203, 247, 248, 252
Leonine city, 55, 56
Letter-writers, public, 102
Lewis Gonzaga, S., 102, 223
Lewis the Bavarian, 164
Libraries, 21, 31, 35, 174, 175
Lime-kilns, 37
Livy, 25
Lombardy, Lombards, 14, 65, 77, 125, 126, 188
Lottery, the, 84-87
Lucina, crypts of, 46
Lucius Crassus, 28
Lucius II., 240
_Lucomones_, 197
Lucullus, 28
Ludovisi, 170
_Lumachella_ marble, 27
Luna marble, 25
Lupercus, 2, 91, 196
_Lupetto Romano_, 90
Macaroni, 97, 98, 100, 103
Madonna di S. Agostino, 86
Madonna, cult of the, 83, 87, 89, 91, 99
_Mafia_, 139, 139 _n._
Magistrates, 53, 110
Malaria, 74
Malta, order of, 5
Mamertine prisons, 18, 147
Manfred, 168
Marbles, 25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 36, 54, 61, 98;
workers, 27, 36, 37, 39
Marcellus, theatre of, 30, 160, 168, 228
_Marchesi di baldacchino_, 177, 178
Marcia, acqua, 22, 73
Marcus Aurelius, 32, 46, 55, 63, 197, 241
Marforio, 140
Margherita, queen, 115, 252
Marino, 166
_Marmoratum_, 26
Mars, 3, 59, 74;
spears of, 3;
Ultor, 30
Marshall of Conclave, 170, 211;
of the Pope's Horse, 170
Martin V., 166
Martyrs, 41, 42, 43, 51
Mass, 3, 184, 191, 224, 232;
in the Campagna, 76;
commemorations in the, 49
Massimo family, 168
Master of Ceremonies, 205;
of Sant'Ospizio, 170;
workers, 67
Mausolea. _See_ Tombs
Maxentius, 32
Maximi Caecilii, 45
Mazzini, 214
Meals, Roman, 97
Menage, Roman, 93
Merchants, 63
_Mercanti di Campagna_, 77
_Mesata secca_, 106
Michael Angelo, 165
Michael, S., 74
Middle ages, 23, 36, 55, 65, 67, 161
Militia, Roman, 56, 64
Minerva, 18, 80, 181
Misericordia, 77
Mithras, 183
Mixed marriages, 122
Monasteries, 38, 66, 67, 96;
number of, 249;
suppression of, 248-9
Monastic professions, 249
Monks and nuns, 215, 220, 228, 229, 230, 249
Monopolies, 67
Monsignore of the papal wardrobe, 205;
of roads and streets, 9
_Mons Saturninus_, 30
Monte Cassino, 179
Monte Cavo, 17, 78
Monte Giordano, 163
_Montes_, 53
Monti, 55, 59, 60
Monticiani, 60, 61, 62
_Morra_, 101
Mortar, 22, 23, 24
Mosaic, 36, 37, 39, 174;
pavement, 27, 28, 33;
sectile, 28
Moses, 45, 181;
and Peter, 42
Mother houses, 249
Municipalities, Italian, 14, 15
Municipality, Roman, 13-16, 59
Municipal liberties, 14-16, 56, 64, 237, 245
Naples (Neapolitans), 72, 89, 126, 132, 138-9, 147, 166, 168,
187, 188, 237
Napoleon, 61, 141, 171, 238
Navicella, 61
Nero, 20, 22, 29, 31
Nicholas III., 167
Nobility, Roman, 63, 159, 160, 172, 173, 174, 178, 253
Numa, King, 52, 62, 181
Numidia, 27
Obelisks, 26, 28, 33, 38
Obsession, 82
_Octroi_, 103
Odescalchi, 168, 172
Olevano, 79
Olive, 80
Olive harvest, 80
_Ombrellino_, 230
Opus incertum, 25;
mixtum, 25;
reticulatum, 25
Orderlies, 107
Oreglia, Cardinal, 203
Orsini family, 60, 160, 162, 163, 165;
Filippo, 167-168;
Giordino, 167, 168
Osteria, 100
Ostia, 26, 33, 63
Ostian Way, 70
Ostie, 229
Otho III., 7, 8
Oxen, 24, 26, 68, 77, 96
Pacca, Cardinal, 255
Pacca law, 255
Palaces of Caesars, 30, 33
Palaces, 38, 39, 93, 94, 172, 174, 175;
Aldobrandini, 6, 50;
Antici Mattei, 172;
Balestra, 172;
Barberini, 171, 232;
Bolognetti-Cenci, 169;
Bolognetti, 169;
Bonaparte, 172;
Borghese, 172;
Braschi, 173;
Cancelleria, 173, 247;
Cenci, 169;
Chigi, 172;
Colonna, 166, 172;
Corsini, 171;
Costaguti, 172;
Doria Pamphili, 172, 175;
Falconieri, 173;
Farnese, 173;
Farnesina, 171;
Ferraiolo, 172;
Fiano, 140, 172;
Gabrielli, 163;
Gaetani, 172;
Giustiniani, 173;
Grazioli, 173;
Lancellotti, 253;
Lateran, 36, 247;
Longhi, 172;
Massimo, 169;
Odescalchi, 172;
Orsini, 168;
Patrizi, 173;
Piombino, 172;
Quirinale, 208, 214, 231, 247, 251, 252, 253, 254;
Ruffo, 172;
Ruspoli, 172;
Rinuccini, 172;
Salviati, 172;
Sciarra, 172;
Simonetti, 173;
Theodoli, 172;
Venezia, 172
Palatine, 2, 4, 5, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 53, 56, 135, 157, 162
Pales, 91
Palestrina, 164, 165, 166
Palestrina, Pier-Luigi, 156
Paliano, 166
_Palladium_, 2
Pallas, 2, 13
Pamphili-Doria, 172
Pan, 2, 91, 92
Pantheon, 10, 19, 30, 56
Paola aqueduct, 22
_Paolo_, 105
Papacy, 16, 57, 162, 167
Papal government and theocracy, 214, 217, 218, 219, 224, 225,
236, 245, 254
Papal titles, 177, 179
_Papetto_, 105
Parian marble, 26
Parione, 56
Parishes, Roman, 53, 56, 200, 201, 206
Parliament House, 101
Paros, 27
Paschal II., 166, 240
"Paschal lambs," 223
Pasquale, convent of S., 223
Pasquinades, 140
_Pastor Bonus_, 197
_Patres conscripti_, 178
Patriarchal menage, 175, 176
Patricians, Roman, 45, 70, 159, 170, 178
Patrimony of Peter, 237, 238;
extent, 257
Patrizi, 177
Paul II., 172
Paul V., 170
Paul, S., 192, 199
Paulinus of Nola, S., 8
Pavements, mosaic, 27, 28, 33
_Pavonazzo_, 27
_Pax Romana_, 198
"Peace of the Church," the, 12, 34, 43, 198
Pensions of monks and nuns, 248-249
Pentelic marble, 27
_Peperino_, 23, 73
Pepin, 14
Peretti Francesco, 167
Peruzzi, B., 168
Persecutions, 20, 42, 51
Peter, S., 16, 42, 50, 166, 199, 200, 243;
chair of, 46;
and Moses, 42;
primacy of, 42;
statue of, 11
Petrarch, 164
Philip Neri, S., 77
_Piano nobile_, 175
Piazza SS. Apostoli, 166, 172;
Colonna, 172, 202;
Lateran, 26;
Montanara, 90, 160;
Navona, 173;
Pantaleoni, 169;
del Popolo, 219;
Tartaruga, 172;
di Venezia, 169, 172
Piedmont, Piedmontese, 126, 132, 139, 155, 171, 253
Pierleoni, 160, 161
Pigna, _rione_, 56
Pilgrims in Rome, 9, 67
Pincian hill, 16, 17, 100, 135, 224, 244
Pinelli, 140, 226
Piombino, 68, 170, 174
Pius VI., 140, 173, 238
Pius IX., 11, 22, 85, 202, 203, 208, 213, 215, 219, 231, 238;
and Italy, 214, 215, 219, 235, 236;
liberal impulses, 213;
and the _non possumus_, 215;
and the people, 222, 245;
and the syllabus, 236;
and Victor Emmanuel, 250
Pius X., 77, 250
Pizzardoni, 151
Plebiscite, the, 251
Plebs, the, 14, 56, 62, 78, 81
Police, 54, 55, 144, 149-151, 215
Pompeii, 29, 45
Pompey, theatre of, 163
Pomponius Grecinus, 45
Pons Aelius, 32;
Fabricius, 7, 29;
Cestius, 7;
Triumphalis, 55
Ponte Margherita, 102;
Quattro Capi, 29;
Rotto, 223;
S. Angelo, 9, 32
Ponte, _rione_, 55
_Pontifex Maximus_, 197
Pontine marshes, 30
Pope, 201, 202, 205;
court of the, 173;
presentation at, 253;
and conciliation, 249;
and the Catholic princes, 237, 238;
election of, 202;
and Italy, 246-250, 252
Popes, fugitive, 239;
Senate of the, 201
Population of Rome, 12, 34
_Populus_, 14
Porphyry, 27, 36
_Porporati_, 204
_Porta Furba_, 72, 73
Porter, house, 94, 95, 110, 175
Porticoes, 33, 35
Portico of Octavia, 30, 168
Porto, 26
Possession, 82
_Pozzolana_, 24
Praetextatus, 45
Praetorian guard, 54
Prelate, Italian, pamphlet by, 254
Prefect, 54, 169
_Prepotenza_, 134
Presbyters, 200, 201
Primacy, papal, 42, 235, 244
Princes, Roman, 108, 159, 161, 170, 172, 173, 176, 177, 207
Prince Assistant, 167, 170
Priory of the Knights of Malta, 5
Priscilla and Aquila, 5
Processions, 58, 66, 67, 205, 252
_Propaganda Fide_, 248
Prophets, 48, 188
Protestantism in Rome, 47, 189, 190, 193
Provisioning of the city, 65, 103, 105
Pudens, 45, 46
Pumice stone, 24
Puritanism, 112, 188, 189, 194, 196
Quarries, 23, 24, 25
_Questura_, 150
_Questurini_, 150
Quirinal hill, 5, 6, 31, 53, 163, 166, 208
Quirites, 4, 5, 15
Regional devices, 57, 59
Regions, 43, 52-61, 201-2
Regola, _rione_, 56
Religion. _See_ Roman, and Catholicism, Italian
Religious fabrics, laws about, 248
Remus, 5
Renaissance, 36, 38, 58, 124, 172, 237
Republic. _See_ Rome
_Res publica_, the Roman, 180-186
Rhea Silvia, 2
_Rheda_, 72
Rienzo, Cola di, 14, 57
Rignano, duca, 168
_Rioni_. _See_ Regions
Ripa, _rione_, 56
_Roma Quadrata_, 2, 4, 197
Roman art, 18, 127, 156-8, 190, 191;
characteristics, 8, 9, 10, 11, 107, 126-8, 133-7, 146, 147,
150, 156, 183-5, 187, 194, 229, 240, 241;
Church, 14, 41, 42, 50, 126, 184-7, 198-9, 201, 255;
customs, 82-7, 99-103, 140-144, 230, 231;
dialect, 132;
imperialism, 64, 115, 198-9;
marriage, 153-5;
realism, 113-14, 124-5, 185;
religion, 180-88, 192, 196-8;
type, 129-132;
voices, 132, 157
Romans, and agriculture 2-3, 17, 76, 91, 128-9, 147;
ancient, 3-4, 78, 128-9;
and English, 123, 131, 135, 174, 185, 192, 193;
and French, 152, 184, 185, 238;
and Greeks, 129, 130, 180, 182-4, 185, 197;
and Italians, 126, 137-9, 188;
and Jews, _see_ Jews;
modern, 128, 130, 134, 136-7, 138-9, 225, 252-4;
a pastoral people, 3, 17, 91, 182
Rome,
bombardment of, 212;
and Byzantium, _see_ Byzantium;
destruction of city, 9, 11, 37, 39;
and Greece, _see_ Greece;
origin of, 1-5;
imperial, 23, 25, 28, 41, 62, 65, 129, 137;
kingly, 1, 2, 3, 5, 18, 52, 53;
republican, 14, 23, 29, 62, 129, 137, 182, 186;
world empire of, 15, 16, 42, 127, 198-9, 236
Rome before 1870,
appearance of city, 9, 227 _et seq._;
artists in, 210;
clergy in, 217, 219, 221, 224, 245;
education in, 220;
government of, 213-15, 217, 219, 224-5, 246;
moral notions in, 83, 87, 220, 222, 225-6, 230;
people in, 11-12, 215-16, 217;
spies in, 224
Romulus, 1, 2, 3, 32, 154, 198;
and Remus, 2, 3, 198
Rospigliosi, 172
Roviano, _duca_, 168
Ruspoli, 169, 177
Sabine hills, 70, 78, 79, 81, 82, 96, 166, 169, 170;
people, 2, 4, 5, 15, 154
_Sacramentate_, 232
Sacred College, 15
Sacrifices, 19
Sacrifice, eucharistic, 49
Saints, cult of, 43
Salaria, 45;
_porta_, 102, 135
Salviati, 171
Sanctuary of a church, 51
Sanctuaries. _See_ Shrines
Saturn, 30, 91;
hill of, 13
Savelli, 160, 161, 165, 170
Savorelli, Vittoria, 221
Saxons, 65
_Sbirri_, 61, 217
_Schola_, 65
Scholasticism, 112
_Scudo_, 105
Sculptors, guild of, 64
Seamen, guild of, 63
See of Rome. _See_ Holy See
Sees, suburban, 201
Senate, 13-15, 34, 45, 57, 70, 149, 159, 164, 240, 241
Senate and People of Rome, 13, 14, 15
"Senator, the," 14
Senators, 45, 58, 63, 159, 178;
and conservators, 55
September 20th, 11, 212, 213, 215
Septimius Severus, 20, 31, 32
Septizonium, 31
Serenade, the, 141, 144
Serlupi, 170
Sermoneta, _duca_, 168, 177
Serpentine, 27
Servants, 94, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109-111, 224
Servius Tullius, 5, 18, 52, 53
Seven hills, 5, 51, 52, 53
Seven sacraments, 48
Sforza, 170
Shops, Roman, 39, 53, 67, 93, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106
Shrines and sanctuaries, 63, 73, 83, 90
Sibylline oracles, 7
Sicily (Sicilians), 126
Sistine chapel, 205, 211
Sixtus I., 35
Sixtus IV., 165, 173
Sixtus V., 55, 140, 167
Slaves, 11, 21, 25, 34, 64, 75
Soldiers, 151;
papal, 215, 244, 246, 247
_Soldo_, 101, 104, 107
Sora, _duca_, 170
Spoleto, 167, 178
S.P.Q.R., 15, 59, 138
_Stadia_, 33
Staircases, 95, 176
Standard of Rome, 15
Standard-bearer, 55, 64, 66, 170
Statilius Taurus, 22
Statues of women, 154
Statutes of guilds, 66
_Statuto_, 246
Streets, Roman, 93, 105, 152;
refuse in, 9
Stucco, 24, 28, 29
Subiaco, 78
Subterranean Rome. _See_ Catacombs
Suburra, _rione_, 53
Sulmona, _principe_, 170
_Suovetaurilia_, 15
Superstition, 81, 83, 136, 187, 196, 222, 226, 231
Susanna and the Elders, 45
Swiss guard, 210, 244
Sylvester, S., 74
Syndic, 166
_Tablinum_, 28
_Tabularium_, 23, 29
Talbot, Gwendoline, 123, 174
Talbots in Rome, 123
Tanners, guild of, 63
_Tarantella_, 140
Tarquinius Priscus, 18, 30, 52;
Superbus, 18
Tarquins, 29, 30
Taste and art, 157
Taxes, 64, 107, 139, 217, 219
Teano, _principe_, 168
Temples, 18, 19, 30, 33, 37, 39, 163;
of Antoninus and Faustina, 32;
Castor and Pollux, 30;
Ceres, 31;
Concord, 30;
Dii Consentes (portico of), 181;
Fortuna Virilis, 29;
Libertas, 160;
Mars Ultor, 30;
Romulus, 198;
Saturn, 30;
Templum Urbis, 32;
Venus and Rome, 32;
Vespasian, 31
Temporal power, 42, 214, 215, 219, 235-9, 240, 242-3, 245, 255
_Teppa_, 139, 139 _n._
_Terno_, 85, 86
_Testone_, 105
Theodoli, 177
_Thermae_, 20, 21, 32, 33
Throne room, 176, 207
Tiber, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 21, 33, 63, 70, 131, 171, 173
Tiberius, 30
Titles, patrician, 177
_Titulus_, 5, 34, 201, 202
Titus, 20, 21, 22, 27, 29, 31, 182
Tivoli, 24, 32, 33, 78
Tombs, 33, 36, 72;
Bibulus, 29;
Cecilia Metella, 29, 168;
Latin, 29;
of S. Peter, 16
Tor de' Conti, 160;
di Nona, 163
Tor Sanguigna, 163;
de' Specchi, 102, 230
Torlonia, 169, 230
Towers, 56, 163;
baronial, 23, 38;
bell, 38;
semaphores, 73;
vedette, 38, 73
Trades unions, 68
Tradesmen, 103, 104, 105
Trajan, 5, 20, 22, 31, 77, 142, 231
Transtiburtina, 55
Trastevere, 55, 56, 61, 62, 130, 162, 171, 240
Trasteverini, 60, 130
_Trattoria_, 79
Travertine, 22, 24, 27, 39
Trent, Council of, 238
Trevi, _rione_, 55
Tribune, 19, 36
Tribunes, 54
_Triclinium_, 35
Triumvirate, 123
Troy, 2
Tufa, 18, 23
_Turris Cartularia_, 161
Tuscans (Tuscany), 69, 125, 126, 129, 133, 188, 237
Tusculum, 39, 78, 166
Twelve Tables, 23
Ulpii, 45
Umbria, 148, 188
Unction, extreme, 192
Universities. _See_ Guilds and women, 155
Urban VIII., 9, 140, 171
Vandals, 9
Vatican, 28, 56, 58, 161, 163, 203, 205, 208, 211, 228, 230,
239, 241, 244, 247, 252, 254
Veii, 33, 72
Velabrum, 18
_Vendetta_, 149
Venice, Venetians, 125, 126, 132, 188
Venosa, _principe_, 170
Vespasian, 22, 28, 31, 33, 72, 154
Vesta, 181
Vestals, 2, 72, 154
Vestibulum, 35
Via Botteghe Oscure, 173;
Julia, 173;
Lata, 56;
Monserrato, 160;
Nazionale, 194, 160;
dell' Orso, 9;
Pilotta, 166;
Plebiscito, 172;
Quattro Fontane, 232;
Quirinale, 166;
Strozzi, 6;
Viminale, 6
Viaticum, 12, 193, 230
_Vici_, 53
Vicovaro, 169
Victor Emmanuel II., 10, 169
_Vidua_, 46
_Vigiles_, 26, 54, 59
Villa Aldobrandini 171;
Borghese, 171;
Corsini, 171;
Hadrian's, 32;
Massimo, 6;
Mondragone, 171;
Pamfili-Doria, 73, 231
Villas, 33, 38, 39, 93, 94, 172, 174
Viminal hill, 5, 6, 53, 55
Vintage, 78
_Virgo, aqua_, 22
Vitiges, 37
Voices. _See_ Roman
Volcanic rock, 17, 23, 25
Volcanoes, 17
Vulcan, 80, 88
Wagner and Germans, 190;
and Italians, 124
Walls, 32, 38, 56, 93, 102, 163
Washing tubs, 102
Weavers, Guild of, 63
Windows in temples and churches, 19, 186
Wines, Roman, 79
Wiseman, Cardinal, 208
Wolf, the, 2
Women, Italian, 153, 155
Young Italy, 214, 215, 235, 242, 244, 246
Zagarolo, 166
Zitelle, 67
THE END
_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.