[1] _Incensum_ (or _incensum thuris_) from _incendere_; Ital. and
Port. _incenso_; Span. _incienso_; Fr. _encens_. The substantive
occurs in an inscription of the Arvalian brotherhood (Marini, _Gli
Atti e Monumenti de' fratelli Arvali_, p. 639), but is frequent only
in ecclesiastical Latin. Compare the classical _suffimentum_ and
_suffitus_ from _suffio_. For "incense" Ulfila (Luke i. 10, 11) has
retained the Greek [Greek: thymiama] (thymiama); all the Teutonic
names (Ger. _Weihrauch_; Old Saxon _Wîrôc_; Icel. _Reykelsi_; Dan.
_Rögelse_) seem to belong to the Christian period (Grimm, _Deutsche
Mythologie_, i. 50).
[2] The etymological affinities of [Greek: thyô, thyos], _thus_,
_fuffio_, _funus_, and the Sans. _dhuma_ are well known. See Max
Müller, _Chips_, i. 99.
[3] Classical Latin has but one word (_thus_ or _tus_) for all sorts
of incense. _Libanus_, for frankincense, occurs only in the Vulgate.
Even the "ground frankincense" or "ground pine" (_Ajuga chamaepitys_)
was known to the Romans as _Tus terrae_ (Pliny), although they called
some plant, from its smelling like frankincense, _Libanotis_, and a
kind of Thasian wine, also from its fragrance, _Libanios_. The
Latino-barbaric word _Olibanum_ (quasi _Oleum Libani_), the common
name for frankincense in modern commerce, is used in a bull of Pope
Benedict IX. (1033). It may here be remarked that the name "European
frankincense" is applied to _Pinus Taeda_, and to the resinous
exudation ("Burgundy pitch") of the Norwegian spruce firs (_Abies
excelsa_). The "incense tree" of America is the _Icica guianensis_,
and the "incense wood" of the same continent _I. heptaphylla_.
[4] Brugsch, _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, i. 77-81, 414-419.
[5] Plutarch, _De Iside et Osiride_, c. 52. In Parthey's edition
(Berlin, 1850) other recipes for the manufacture of _kuphi_, by Galen
and Dioscorides, are given; also some results of the editor's own
experiments.
[6] Wilkinson, _Ancient Egyptians_, i. 493; ii. 49, 398-400, 414-416.
[7] Brugsch, _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, i. 303-312.
[8] See Lane, _Mod. Egyptians_, pp. 34, 41, 139, 187, 438 (ed. 1860).
[9] See Wellhausen, _Gesch. Israels_, i. 70 sqq., who from
philological and other data infers the late date of the introduction
of incense into the Jewish ritual.
[10] According to Philo (_Opera_, i. 504, ed. Mangey), they
symbolized respectively water, earth, air and fire.
[11] Other accounts of its composition, drawn from Rabbinical
sources, will be found in various works on Jewish antiquities; see,
for example, Reland, _Antiq. Sacr. vet. Hebr._ pp. 39-41 (1712).
[12] This guarded statement still holds good. Compare Duchesne,
_Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., 1904), ch. ii., "The Mass in the
East," v. "The Books of the Latin Rite," and xii. "The Dedication of
Churches."
INCEST (Lat. _incestus_, unchaste), sexual intercourse between persons
so related by kindred or affinity that legal marriage cannot take place
between them (see MARRIAGE, especially the section _Canon Law_). In
England incest formerly was not generally treated as a crime, although,
along with other offences against morals, it was made punishable by
death in 1650. Since the Restoration it had, to use Blackstone's phrase,
been left to the "feeble coercion of the spiritual courts," but bills to
make it a criminal offence have at various times been unsuccessfully
introduced in Parliament. In 1908 however, an act (The Punishment of
Incest Act 1908) was passed, under which sexual intercourse of a male
with his grand-daughter, daughter, sister or mother is made punishable
with penal servitude for not less than 3 or more than 7 years, or with
imprisonment for not more than two years with or without hard labour. It
is immaterial that the sexual intercourse was had with the consent of
the female; indeed, by s. 2 a female who consents is on conviction
liable to the same punishment as the male. The act also makes an attempt
to commit the offence of incest a misdemeanour, punishable by
imprisonment for not more than two years with or without hard labour.
The terms "brother" and "sister" include half-brother and half-sister,
whether the relationship is or is not traced through lawful wedlock. All
proceedings under the act are held _in camera_ (s. 5). The act does not
apply to Scotland, incest being punishable in Scots law. Under the
Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 27, incestuous adultery is _per se_
sufficient ground to entitle a wife to divorce her husband. The Deceased
Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907, s. 3, retained wives' sisters in the
class of persons with whom adultery is incestuous. In the law of
Scotland, it was, until the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887, a
crime nominally punishable with death, but the penalty usually inflicted
was penal servitude for life. This sentence was actually pronounced on a
man in 1855. In the United States incest is not an indictable offence at
common law, but, generally speaking, it has been made punishable by fine
and imprisonment by state legislation. It is also a punishable offence
in some European countries, notably Germany, Austria and Italy.
INCH (O. Eng. _ynce_ from Lat. _uncia_, a twelfth part; cf. "ounce," and
see As), the twelfth part of a linear foot. As a measure of rainfall an
"inch of rain" is equivalent to a fall of a gallon of water spread over
a surface of about 2 sq. ft., or 100 tons to an acre.
INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH (1753-1821), English novelist, playwright and
actress, was born on the 15th of October 1753 at Standingfield, Suffolk,
the daughter of John Simpson, a farmer. Her father died when she was
eight years old. She and her sisters never enjoyed the advantages of
school or of any regular supervision in their studies, but they seem to
have acquired refined and literary tastes at an early age. Ambitious to
become an actress, a career for which an impediment in her speech hardly
seemed to qualify her, she applied in vain for an engagement; and
finally, in 1772, she abruptly left home to seek her fortune in London.
Here she married Joseph Inchbald (d. 1779), an actor, and on the 4th of
September made her début in Bristol as Cordelia, to his Lear. For
several years she continued to act with him in the provinces. Her rôles
included Anne Boleyn, Jane Shore, Calista, Calpurnia, Lady Anne in
_Richard III._, Lady Percy, Lady Elizabeth Grey, Fanny in _The
Clandestine Marriage_, Desdemona, Aspasia in _Tamerlane_, Juliet and
Imogen; but notwithstanding her great beauty and her natural aptitude
for acting, her inability to acquire rapid and easy utterance prevented
her from attaining to more than very moderate success. After the death
of her husband she continued for some time on the stage; making her
first London appearance at Covent Garden as Bellario in _Philaster_ on
the 3rd of October 1780. Her success, however, as an author led her to
retire in 1789. She died at Kensington House on the 1st of August 1821.
Mrs. Inchbald wrote or adapted nineteen plays, and some of them,
especially _Wives as They Were and Maids as They Are_ (1797), were for a
time very successful. Among the others may be mentioned _I'll tell you
What_ (translated into German, Leipzig, 1798); _Such Things Are_ (1788);
_The Married Man_; _The Wedding Day_; _The Midnight Hour_; _Everyone has
his Fault_; and _Lover's Vows_. She also edited a collection of the
_British Theatre_, with biographical and critical remarks (25 vols.,
1806-1809); a _Collection of Farces_ (7 vols., 1809); and _The Modern
Theatre_ (10 vols., 1809). Her fame, however, rests chiefly on her two
novels: _A Simple Story_ (1791), and _Nature and Art_ (1796). These
works possess many minor faults and inaccuracies, but on the whole their
style is easy, natural and graceful; and if they are tainted in some
degree by a morbid and exaggerated sentiment, and display none of that
faculty of creation possessed by the best writers of fiction, the
pathetic situations, and the deep and pure feeling pervading them,
secured for them a wide popularity.
Mrs Inchbald destroyed an autobiography for which she had been offered
£1000 by Phillips the publisher; but her _Memoirs_, compiled by J.
Boaden, chiefly from her private journal, appeared in 1833 in two
volumes. An interesting account of Mrs Inchbald is contained in
_Records of a Girlhood_, by Frances Ann Kemble (1878). Her portrait
was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence.
INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O'BRIEN, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1614-1674), Irish soldier
and statesman, was the son of Dermod O'Brien, 5th Baron Inchiquin (d.
1624). He belonged to a great family which traced its descent to Brian
Boroimhe, king of Ireland, and members of which were always to the
forefront in Irish public life. The first baron of Inchiquin was another
Murrough O'Brien (d. 1551) who, after having made his submission to
Henry VIII., was created baron of Inchiquin and earl of Thomond in 1543.
When Murrough died in November 1551 by a curious arrangement his earldom
passed to his nephew Donogh, son of Conor O'Brien (d. 1539), the last
independent prince of Thomond (see Thomond, Earls of), leaving only his
barony to be inherited by his son Dermod (d. 1557), the ancestor of the
later barons of Inchiquin.
Murrough O'Brien, who became 6th baron of Inchiquin in 1624, gained some
military experience in Italy, and then in 1640 was appointed
vice-president of Munster. He took an active and leading part in
suppressing the great Irish rebellion which broke out in the following
year, and during the Civil War the English parliament made him president
of Munster. Early in 1648, however, he declared, for his former master
Charles I., and for about two years he sought to uphold the royalist
cause in Ireland. In 1654 Charles II. made him an earl. His later years
were partly spent in France and in Spain, but he had returned to Ireland
when he died on the 9th of September 1674.
His son William, the 2nd earl (c. 1638-1692), served under his father in
France and Spain, and for six years was governor of Tangier. He was a
partisan of William III. in Ireland, and in 1690 he became governor of
Jamaica where he died in January 1692. In 1800 his descendant Murrough,
the 5th earl (d. 1808), was created marquess of Thomond, but on the
death of James, the 3rd marquess, in July 1855 both the marquessate and
the earldom became extinct. The barony of Inchiquin, however, passed to
a kinsman, Sir Lucius O'Brien, Bart. (1800-1872), a descendant of the
first baron and a brother of William Smith O'Brien (q.v.).
INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN (1763-1826), English singer, son of a doctor
in Cornwall, began as a choir-boy at Exeter, but then went into the
navy. His fine tenor voice, however, attracted general attention, and
in 1783 he determined to seek his fortune on the stage. After various
provincial appearances he made a great success in 1790 at Covent Garden,
and thenceforth was the principal English tenor of his day. He sang both
in opera and in oratorio, but his chief popularity lay in his delivery
of ballads, such as "Sally in our Alley," "Black-eyed Susan," "The
Arethusa," and anything of a bold and manly type. He toured in America
in 1817; and on retiring in 1822 from the operatic stage, he travelled
through the provinces with an entertainment called "The Wandering
Melodist." He died of paralysis at Worcester on the 11th of February
1826.
INCLINOMETER (DIP CIRCLE). Two distinct classes of instruments are used
for measuring the dip (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL) or inclination of the
earth's magnetic field to the horizontal, namely (1) dip circles, and
(2) induction inclinometers or earth inductors.
[Illustration]
_Dip Circles._--In the case of the dip circle the direction of the
earth's magnetic field is obtained by observing the position of the axis
of a magnetized needle so supported as to be free to turn about a
horizontal axis passing through its centre of gravity. The needles now
used consist of flat lozenge-shaped pieces of steel about 9 cm. long and
0.1 cm. thick, and weigh about 4.1 grams. The axle, which is made of
hard steel, projects on either side of the needle and has a diameter of
about 0.05 cm. Needles considerably larger than the above have been
used, but experience showed that the values for the dip observed with
needles 23 cm. long, was about 1' less than with the 9 cm. needles, and
A. Schuster (_Phil. Mag._, 1891 [5], 31, p. 275) has shown that the
difference is due to the appreciable bending of the longer needles owing
to their weight.
When in use the dip needle is supported on two agate knife-edges, so
that its axle is on the axis of a vertical divided circle, on which the
positions of the ends of the needle are either directly observed by
means of two reading lenses, in which case the circle is generally
divided into thirds of a degree so that it can by estimation be read to
about two minutes, or a cross arm carries two small microscopes and two
verniers, the cross wires of each microscope being adjusted so as to
bisect the image of the corresponding end of the needle. Two V-shaped
lifters actuated by a handle serve to raise the needle from the agates,
and when lowered assure the axle being at the centre of the vertical
circle. The supports for the needle, and a box to protect the needle
from draughts, as well as the vertical circle, can be rotated about a
vertical axis, and their azimuth read off on a horizontal divided
circle. There are also two adjustable stops which can be set in any
position, and allow the upper part of the instrument to be rotated
through exactly 180° without the necessity of reading the horizontal
circle.
When making a determination of the dip with the dip circle, a number of
separate readings have to be made in order to eliminate various
instrumental defects. Thus, that side of the needle on which the number
is engraved being called the face of the needle, and that side of the
protecting box next the vertical circle the face of the instrument, both
ends of the needle are observed in the following relative positions, the
instrument being in every case so adjusted in azimuth that the axle of
the needle points magnetic east and west:--
i. Face of instrument east and face of needle next to face of
instrument;
ii. Face of instrument west and face of needle next to face of
instrument;
iii. Face of instrument west and face of needle away from face of
instrument;
iv. Face of instrument east and face of needle away from face of
instrument.
Next the direction of magnetization of the needle is reversed by
stroking it a number of times with two strong permanent magnets, when
the other end of the needle dips and the above four sets of readings are
repeated. The object in reading both ends of the needle is to avoid
error if the prolongation of the axle of the needle does not pass
through the centre of the vertical circle, as also to avoid error due to
the eccentricity of the arm which carries the reading microscopes and
verniers. The reversal of the instrument between (i.) and (ii.) and
between (iii.) and (iv.) is to eliminate errors due to (a) the line
joining the zeros of the vertical circle not being exactly horizontal,
and (b) the agate knife-edges which support the needle not being exactly
horizontal. The reversal of the needle between (ii.) and (iii.) is to
eliminate errors due to (a) the magnetic axis of the needle not
coinciding with the line joining the two points of the needle, and (b)
to the centre of gravity of the needle being displaced from the centre
of the axle in a direction at right angles to the length of the needle.
The reversal of the poles of the needle is to counteract any error
produced by the centre of gravity of the needle being displaced from the
centre of the axle in a direction parallel to the length of the needle.
For use at sea the dip circle was modified, by Robert Were Fox (_Annals
of Electricity_, 1839, 3, p. 288), who used a needle having pointed
axles, the points resting in jewelled holes carried by two uprights, so
that the movement of the ship does not cause the axle of the needle to
change its position with reference to the vertical divided circle. To
counteract the tendency of the axle to stick in the bearings, the
instrument is fitted with a knob on the top of the box protecting the
needle, and when a reading is being taken this knob is rubbed with an
ivory or horn disk, the surface of which is corrugated. In this way a
tremor is caused which is found to assist the needle in overcoming the
effects of friction, so that it takes up its true position. In the Creak
modification of the Fox dip circle, the upper halves of the jewels which
form the bearings are cut away so that the needle can be easily removed,
and thus the reversals necessary when making a complete observation can
be performed (see also MAGNETO-METER).
_Induction Inclinometers._--The principle on which induction
inclinometers depend is that if a coil of insulated wire is spun about a
diameter there will be an alternating current induced in the coil,
unless the axis about which it turns is parallel to the lines of force
of the earth's field. Hence if the axis about which such a coil spins is
adjusted till a sensitive galvanometer connected to the coil through a
commutator, by which the alternating current is converted into a direct
current, is undeflected, then the axis must be parallel to the lines of
force of the earth's field, and hence the inclination of the axis to the
horizontal is the dip. The introduction and perfection of this type of
inclinometer is almost entirely due to H. Wild. His form of instrument
for field observations[1] consists of a coil 10 cm. in diameter,
containing about 1000 turns of silk-covered copper wire, the resistance
being about 40 ohms, which is pivoted inside a metal ring. This ring can
itself rotate about a horizontal axle in its own plane, this axle being
at right angles to that about which the coil can rotate. Attached to the
axle of the ring is a divided circle, by means of which and two reading
microscopes the inclination of the axis of rotation of the coil to the
horizontal can be read. The bearings which support the horizontal axle
of the ring are mounted on a horizontal annulus which can be rotated in
a groove attached to the base of the instrument, as so to allow the
azimuth of the axle of the ring, and hence also that of the plane in
which the axis of the coil can move, to be adjusted. The coil is rotated
by means of a flexible shaft worked by a small cranked handle and a
train of gear wheels. The terminals of the coil are taken to a two-part
commutator of the ordinary pattern on which rest two copper brushes
which are connected by flexible leads to a sensitive galvanometer. The
inclination of the axis of the coil can be roughly adjusted by hand by
rotating the supporting ring. The final adjustment is made by means of a
micrometer screw attached to an arm which is clamped on the axle of the
ring.
When making a measurement the azimuth circle is first set horizontal, a
striding level placed on the trunnions which carry the ring being used
to indicate when the adjustment is complete. The striding level is then
placed on the axle which carries the coil, and when the bubble is at the
centre of the scale the microscopes are adjusted to the zeros of the
vertical circle. A box containing a long compass needle and having two
feet with inverted V's is placed to rest on the axle of the coil, and
the instrument is turned in azimuth till the compass needle points to a
lubber line on the box. By this means the axis of the coil is brought
into the magnetic meridian. The commutator being connected to a
sensitive galvanometer, the coil is rotated, and the ring adjusted till
the galvanometer is undeflected. The reading on the vertical circle then
gives the dip. By a system of reversals slight faults in the adjustment
of the instrument can be eliminated as in the case of the dip circle.
With such an instrument it is claimed that readings of dip can be made
accurate to ±0.1 minutes of arc.
The form of Wild inductor for use in a fixed observatory differs from
the above in that the coil consists of a drum-wound armature, but
without iron, of which the length is about three times the diameter.
This armature has its axle mounted in a frame attached to the sloping
side of a stone pillar, so that the axis of rotation is approximately
parallel to the lines of force of the earth's field. By means of two
micrometer screws the inclination of the axis to the magnetic meridian
and to the horizontal can be adjusted. The armature is fitted with a
commutator and a system of gear wheels by means of which it can be
rapidly rotated. The upper end of the axle carries a plane mirror, the
normal to which is adjusted parallel to the axis of rotation of the
armature. A theodolite is placed on the top of the pillar and the
telescope is turned so that the image of the cross-wires, seen by
reflection in the mirror, coincides with the wires themselves. In this
way the axis of the theodolite telescope is placed parallel to the axis
of the armature, and hence the dip can be read off on the altitude
circle of the theodolite.
AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references already given the
following papers may be consulted: (1) _Admiralty Manual of Scientific
Inquiry_, which contains directions for making observations with a dip
circle; (2) Stewart and Gee, _Elementary Practical Physics_, which
contains a full description of the dip circle and instructions for
making a set of observations; (3) L. A. Bauer, _Terrestrial Magnetism_
(1901), 6, p. 31, a memoir which contains the results of a comparison
of the values for the dip obtained with a number of different circles;
(4) E. Leyst, _Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der
Wiss._ (St Petersburg, 1887), 10, No. 5, containing a discussion of
the errors of dip circles; (5) H. Wild, _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. des
Sci. de St Pétersbourg_ (March 1895), a paper which considers the
accuracy obtainable with the earth inductor. (W. Wn.)