[1] Of these 80,000 acres are reached directly--72,000 N., and 8000
S. of the Snake river; and from 50,000 to 70,000 acres more are above
the level of the canals and will have water pumped to them by the
11,000-30,000 h.p. developed.
[2] This disqualification and much other legislation were due to the
large Mormon population in Idaho. In 1884-1885 all county and
precinct officers were required to take a test oath abjuring bigamy,
polygamy, or celestial marriage; and under this law in 1888 three
members of the territorial legislature were deprived of their seats
as ineligible. An act of 1889, when the Mormons constituted over 20%
of the population, forbade in the case of any who had since the 1st
of January 1888 practised, taught, aided or encouraged polygamy or
bigamy, their registration or voting until two years after they had
taken a test oath renouncing such practices, and until they had
satisfied the District Court that in the two years preceding they had
been guilty of no such practices. The Constitutional Convention which
met at Boisé in July-August 1889 was strongly anti-Mormon, and the
Constitution it framed was approved by a popular vote of 12,398 out
of 14,184. The United States Supreme Court decided the anti-Mormon
legislation case of Davis v. Beason in favour of the Idaho
legislature. In 1893 the disqualification was made no longer
retroactive, the two-year clause was omitted, and the test oath
covered only present renunciation of polygamy.
[3] Governor Shoup resigned in December to take his seat in the U.S.
Senate.
IDAR, or EDAR, a native state of India, forming part of the Mahi Kantha
agency, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. It has an area of 1669
sq. m., and a population (1901) of 168,557, showing a decrease of 44% in
the decade as the result of famine. Estimated gross revenue, £29,000;
tribute to the gaekwar of Baroda, £2000. In 1901 the raja and his
posthumous son both died, and the succession devolved upon Sir Pertab
Singh (q.v.) of Jodhpur. The line of railway from Ahmedabad through
Parantij runs mainly through this state. Much of the territory is held
by kinsmen of the raja on feudal tenure. The products are grain,
oil-seeds and sugar-cane. The town of Idar is 64 m. N.E. of Ahmedabad.
Pop. (1901) 7085. It was formerly the capital, but Ahmednagar (pop.
3200) is the present capital.
IDAS, in Greek legend, son of Aphareus of the royal house of Messene,
brother of Lynceus. He is only mentioned in a single passage in Homer
(_Iliad_, ix. 556 sqq.), where he is called the strongest of men on
earth. He carried off Marpessa, daughter of Evenus, as his wife and
dared to bend his bow against Apollo, who was also her suitor. Zeus
intervened, and left the choice to Marpessa, who declared in favour of
Idas, fearing that the god might desert her when she grew old
(Apollodorus i. 7). The Apharetidae are best known for their fight with
the Dioscuri. A quarrel had arisen about the division of a herd of
cattle which the four had stolen. Idas claimed the whole of the booty as
the victor in a contest of eating, and drove the cattle off to Messene.
The Dioscuri overtook him and lay in wait in a hollow oak. But Lynceus,
whose keenness of sight was proverbial, saw Castor through the trunk and
warned his brother, who thereupon slew the mortal Castor; finally,
Pollux slew Lynceus, and Idas was struck by lightning (Apollodorus iii.
11; Pindar, _Nem._, x. 60; Pausanias iv. 3. 1). According to others, the
Dioscuri had carried off the daughters of Leucippus, who had been
betrothed to the Apharetidae (Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 699; Theocritus xxii.
137). The scene of the combat is placed near the grave of Aphareus at
Messene, at Aphidna in Attica, or in Laconia; and there are other
variations of detail in the accounts (see also Hyginus, _Fab._ 80). Idas
and Lynceus were originally gods of light, probably the sun and moon,
the herd of cattle (for the possession of which they strove with the
Dioscuri) representing the heavenly bodies. The annihilation of the
Apharetidae in the legend indicates the subordinate position held by the
Messenians after the loss of their independence and subjugation by
Sparta, the Dioscuri being distinctly Spartan, as the Apharetidae were
Messenian heroes. The grave of Idas and Lynceus was shown at Sparta,
according to Pausanias (iii. 13. 1), whose own opinion, however, is that
they were buried in Messenia. On the chest of Cypselus, Marpessa is
represented as following Idas from the temple of Apollo (by whom,
according to some, she had been carried off), and there was a painting
by Polygnotus of the rape of the Leucippidae in the temple of the
Dioscuri at Athens.
In the article GREEK ART, fig. 66 (Pl. iv.) represents Idas and the
Dioscuri driving off cattle.
IDDESLEIGH, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, 1ST EARL OF (1818-1887), British
statesman, was born in London, on the 27th of October 1818. His
ancestors had long been settled in Devonshire, their pedigree, according
to Burke, being traceable to the beginning of the 12th century. After a
successful career at Balliol College, Oxford, he became in 1843 private
secretary to Mr Gladstone at the board of trade. He was afterwards legal
secretary to the board; and after acting as one of the secretaries to
the Great Exhibition of 1851, co-operated with Sir Charles Trevelyan in
framing the report which revolutionized the conditions of appointment to
the Civil Service. He succeeded his grandfather, Sir Stafford Henry
Northcote, as 8th baronet in 1851. He entered Parliament in 1855 as
Conservative M.P. for Dudley, and was elected for Stamford in 1858, a
seat which he exchanged in 1866 for North Devon. Steadily supporting his
party, he became president of the board of trade in 1866, secretary of
state for India in 1867, and chancellor of the exchequer in 1874. In the
interval between these last two appointments he had been one of the
commissioners for the settlement of the "Alabama" difficulty with the
United States, and on Mr Disraeli's elevation to the House of Lords in
1876 he became leader of the Conservative party in the Commons. As a
finance minister he was largely dominated by the lines of policy laid
down by Mr Gladstone; but he distinguished himself by his dealings with
the Debt, especially his introduction of the New Sinking Fund (1876), by
which he fixed the annual charge for the Debt in such a way as to
provide for a regular series of payments off the capital. His temper as
leader was, however, too gentle to satisfy the more ardent spirits among
his own followers, and party cabals (in which Lord Randolph
Churchill--who had made a dead set at the "old gang," and especially Sir
Stafford Northcote--took a leading part) led to Sir Stafford's transfer
to the Lords in 1885, when Lord Salisbury became prime minister. Taking
the titles of earl of Iddesleigh and Viscount St Cyres, he was included
in the cabinet as first lord of the treasury. In Lord Salisbury's 1886
ministry he became secretary of state for foreign affairs, but the
arrangement was not a comfortable one, and his resignation had just been
decided upon when on the 12th of January 1887 he died very suddenly at
Lord Salisbury's official residence in Downing Street. Lord Iddesleigh
was elected lord rector of Edinburgh University in 1883, in which
capacity he addressed the students on the subject of "Desultory
Reading." He had little leisure for letters, but amongst his works were
_Twenty Years of Financial Policy_ (1862), a valuable study of
Gladstonian finance, and _Lectures and Essays_ (1887). His _Life_ by
Andrew Lang appeared in 1890. Lord Iddesleigh married in 1843 Cecilia
Frances Farrer (d. 1910) (sister of Thomas, 1st Lord Farrer), by whom he
had seven sons and three daughters.
He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest son, WALTER STAFFORD
NORTHCOTE (1845- ), who for some years was his father's private
secretary. He was chairman of the Inland Revenue Board from 1877 to
1892; and is also known as a novelist. His eldest son STAFFORD HENRY
NORTHCOTE, Viscount St Cyres (1869- ), was educated at Eton and Merton
College Oxford. After taking a 1st class in History, he was elected a
senior student of Christ Church, where he resided for a while as tutor
and lecturer. His interest in the development of religious thought led
him to devote himself specially to the history of the Roman Catholic
Church in the 17th century, the first-fruits of which was his _François
de Fénelon_ (London, 1901); eight years later he published his _Pascal_
(ib. 1909).
The second son of the 1st earl of Iddesleigh, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE,
1st Baron Northcote (b. 1846), was educated at Eton and at Merton
College, Oxford. He became a clerk in the foreign office in 1868, acted
as private secretary to Lord Salisbury, and was attached to the embassy
at Constantinople from 1876 to 1877. From 1877 to 1880 he was secretary
to the chancellor of the exchequer, was financial secretary to the war
office from 1885 to 1886, surveyor-general of ordnance, 1886 to 1887,
and charity commissioner, 1891 to 1892. In 1887 he was created a
baronet. In 1880 he was elected M.P. for Exeter as a Conservative, and
retained the seat until 1899, when he was appointed governor of Bombay
(1899-1903), being created a peer in 1900. Lord Northcote was appointed
governor-general of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1903, and held this
post till 1908. He married in 1873 Alice, adopted daughter of the 1st
Lord Mount Stephen.
IDEA (Gr. [Greek: idea], connected with [Greek: idein], to see; cf. Lat.
_species_ from _specere_, to look at), a term used both popularly and in
philosophical terminology with the general sense of "mental picture." To
have no _idea_ how a thing happened is to be without a mental picture of
an occurrence. In this general sense it is synonymous with concept
(q.v.) in its popular usage. In philosophy the term "idea" is common to
all languages and periods, but there is scarcely any term which has been
used with so many different shades of meaning. Plato used it in the
sphere of metaphysics for the eternally existing reality, the archetype,
of which the objects of sense are more or less imperfect copies. Chairs
may be of different forms, sizes, colours and so forth, but "laid up in
the mind of God" there is the one permanent _idea_ or type, of which the
many physical chairs are derived with various degrees of imperfection.
From this doctrine it follows that these _ideas_ are the sole reality
(see further IDEALISM); in opposition to it are the empirical thinkers
of all time who find reality in particular physical objects (see
HYLOZOISM, EMPIRICISM, &c.). In striking contrast to Plato's use is that
of John Locke, who defines "idea" as "whatever is the object of
understanding when a man thinks" (_Essay on the Human Understanding_
(I.), vi. 8). Here the term is applied not to the mental process, but to
anything whether physical or intellectual which is the object of it.
Hume differs from Locke by limiting "idea" to the more or less vague
mental reconstructions of perceptions, the perceptual process being
described as an "impression." Wundt widens the term to include
"conscious representation of some object or process of the external
world." In so doing he includes not only ideas of memory and
imagination, but also perceptual processes, whereas other psychologists
confine the term to the first two groups. G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin,
in the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_, i. 498, define "idea"
as "the reproduction with a more or less adequate image, of an object
not actually present to the senses." They point out that an idea and a
perception are by various authorities contrasted in various ways.
"Difference in degree of intensity," "comparative absence of bodily
movement on the part of the subject," "comparative dependence on mental
activity," are suggested by psychologists as characteristic of an idea
as compared with a perception.
It should be observed that an idea, in the narrower and generally
accepted sense of a mental reproduction, is frequently composite. That
is, as in the example given above of the idea of chair, a great many
objects, differing materially in detail, all call a single idea. When a
man, for example, has obtained an idea of chairs in general by
comparison with which he can say "This is a chair, that is a stool," he
has what is known as an "abstract idea" distinct from the reproduction
in his mind of any particular chair (see ABSTRACTION). Furthermore a
complex idea may not have any corresponding physical object, though its
particular constituent elements may severally be the reproductions of
actual perceptions. Thus the idea of a centaur is a complex mental
picture composed of the ideas of man and horse, that of a mermaid of a
woman and a fish.
See PSYCHOLOGY.
IDEALISM (from Gr. [Greek: idea], archetype or model, through Fr.
_idéalisme_), a term generally used for the attitude of mind which is
prone to represent things in an imaginative light and to lay emphasis
exclusively or primarily on abstract perfection (i.e. in "ideals"). With
this meaning the philosophical use of the term has little in common.
To understand the philosophical theory that has come to be known under
this title, we may ask (1) what in general it is and how it is
differentiated from other theories of knowledge and reality, (2) how it
has risen in the history of philosophy, (3) what position it occupies at
present in the world of speculation.
1. _General Definition of Idealism._--Idealism as a philosophical
doctrine conceives of knowledge or experience as a process in which the
two factors of subject and object stand in a relation of entire
interdependence on each other as warp and woof. Apart from the activity
of the self or subject in sensory reaction, memory and association,
imagination, judgment and inference, there can be no world of objects. A
thing-in-itself which is not a thing to some consciousness is an
entirely unrealizable, because self-contradictory, conception. But this
is only one side of the truth. It is equally true that a subject apart
from an object is unintelligible. As the object exists through the
constructive activity of the subject, so the subject lives in the
construction of the object. To seek for the true self in any region into
which its opposite in the form of a not-self does not enter is to grasp
a shadow. It is in seeking to realize its own ideas in the world of
knowledge, feeling and action that the mind comes into possession of
itself; it is in becoming permeated and transformed by the mind's ideas
that the world develops the fullness of its reality as object.
Thus defined, idealism is opposed to ordinary common-sense dualism,
which regards knowledge or experience as the result of the more or less
accidental relation between two separate and independent entities--the
mind and its ideas on one side, the thing with its attributes on the
other--that serve to limit and condition each other from without. It is
equally opposed to the doctrine which represents the subject itself and
its state and judgments as the single immediate datum of consciousness,
and all else, whether the objects of an external world or person other
than the individual subject whose states are known to itself, as having
a merely problematic existence resting upon analogy or other process of
indirect inference. This theory is sometimes known as idealism. But it
falls short of idealism as above defined in that it recognizes only one
side of the antithesis of subject and object, and so falls short of the
doctrine which takes its stand on the complete correlativity of the two
factors in experience. It is for this reason that it is sometimes known
as subjective or incomplete idealism. Finally the theory defined is
opposed to all forms of realism, whether in the older form which sought
to reduce mind to a function of matter, or in any of the newer forms
which seek for the ultimate essence of both mind and matter in some
unknown force or energy which, while in itself it is neither, yet
contains the potentiality of both. It is true that in some modern
developments of idealism the ultimate reality is conceived of in an
impersonal way, but it is usually added that this ultimate or absolute
being is not something lower but higher than self-conscious personality,
including it as a more fully developed form may be said to include a
more elementary.
2. _Origin and Development of Idealism._--In its self-conscious form
idealism is a modern doctrine. In it the self or subject may be said to
have come to its rights. This was possible in any complete sense only
after the introspective movement represented by the middle ages had done
its work, and the thought of the individual mind and will as possessed
of relative independence had worked itself out into some degree of
clearness. In this respect Descartes' dictum--_cogito ergo sum_--may be
said to have struck the keynote of modern philosophy, and all subsequent
speculation to have been merely a prolonged commentary upon it. While in
its completer form it is thus a doctrine distinctive of modern times,
idealism has its roots far back in the history of thought. One of the
chief proofs that has been urged of the truth of its point of view is
the persistency with which it has always asserted itself at a certain
stage in philosophical reflection and as the solution of certain
recurrent speculative difficulties. All thought starts from the ordinary
dualism or pluralism which conceives of the world as consisting of the
juxtaposition of mutually independent things and persons. The first
movement is in the direction of dispelling this appearance of
independence. They are seen to be united under the relation of cause and
effect, determining and determined, which turns out to mean that they
are merely passing manifestations of some single entity or energy which
constitutes the real unknown essence of the things that come before our
knowledge. In the pantheism that thus takes the place of the old dualism
there seems no place left for the individual. Mind and will in their
individual manifestations fade into the general background of appearance
without significance except as a link in a fated chain. Deliverance from
the pantheistic conception of the universe comes through the recognition
of the central place occupied by thought and purpose in the actual
world, and, as a consequence of this, of the illegitimacy of the
abstraction whereby material energy is taken for the ultimate reality.
Ancient idealism: Socrates.