Tribe I. : Chondrostei.
Two orders : Selachostomi and Glaniostomi.
Tribe II. : Physostomi.
Twelve orders: Ginglymodi, Halecomorphi, Nematognathi, Scyphophori,
Plectospondyli, Isospondyli, Haplomi, Glanencheli, Ichthyocephali,
Holostomi, Enchelycephali, Colocephali.
Tribe III. : Physoclysti.
Ten orders : Opisthomi, Percesoces, Synentognathi, Hemibranchii,
Lophobranchii, Pediculati, Heterosomata, Plectognathi, Percomorphi,
Pharyngognathi.
Alongside with so much that is good in this classification, there are
many suggestions which cannot be regarded as improvements on the views
of previous workers. Attaching too great an importance to the mode of
suspension of the mandible, Cope separated the Holocephali from the
Selachii and the Dipnoi from the Crossopterygii, thus obscuring the
general agreement which binds these groups to each other, whilst there
is an evident want of proportion in the five subclasses. The exclusion
from the class Pisces of the Leptocardii, or lancelets, as first
advocated by E. Haeckel, was a step in the right direction, whilst that
of the Cyclostomes does not seem called for to such an authority as R.
H. Traquair, with whom the writer of this review entirely concurs.
The group of Crossopterygians, first separated as a family from the
other Ganoids by Huxley, constituted a fortunate innovation, and so was
its division into two minor groups, by which the existing forms
(_Polypteroidei_) were separated as Cladistia. The divisions of the
Actinopteri, which includes all Teleostomes other than the Dipneusti and
Crossopterygii also showed, on the whole, a correct appreciation of
their relationships, the Chondrostei being well separated from the other
Ganoids with which they were generally associated. In the groupings of
the minor divisions, which Cope termed orders, we had a decided
improvement on the Cuvierian-Müllerian classification, the author having
utilized many suggestions of his fellow countrymen Theodore Gill, who
has done much towards a better understanding of their relationships. In
the association of the Characinids with the Cyprinids (Plectospondyli)
in the separation of the flat-fishes from the Ganoids, in the
approximation of the Lophobranchs to the sticklebacks and of the
Plectognaths to the Acanthopterygians, and in many other points, Cope
was in advance of his time, and it is to be regretted that his
contemporaries did not more readily take up many of his excellent
suggestions for the improvement of their systems.
In the subsequent period of his very active scientific life, Cope made
many alterations to his system, the latest scheme published by him being
the following ("Synopsis of the families of Vertebrata," _Amer. Natur._,
1889, p. 849):--
Class : Agnatha.
I. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI.
Orders : Arrhina, Diplorrhina.
II. Subclass : MARSIPOBRANCHII.
Orders : Hyperotreti, Hyperoarti.
Class : Pisces.
I. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI.
II. Subclass : DIPNOI.
III. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII.
Orders : Ichthyotomi, Selachii.
IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI.
(i.) Superorder : _Rhipidopterygia._
Orders : Rhipidistia, Actinistia.
(ii.) Superorder : _Crossopterygia._
Orders : Placodermi, Haplistia, Taxistia, Cladistia.
(iii.) Superorder : _Podopterygia_ (Chondrostei).
(iv.) Superorder : _Actinopterygia._
Orders : Physostomi, Physoclysti.
This classification is that followed, with many emendations, by A. S.
Woodward in his epoch-making _Catalogue of Fossil Fishes_ (4 vols.,
London, 1889-1901), and in his most useful _Outlines of Vertebrate
Paleontology_ (Cambridge, 1898), and was adopted by Günther in the 10th
edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_:--
Class : Agnatha.
I. Subclass : CYCLOSTOMI.
With three orders : (a) _Hyperoartia_ (Lampreys); (b)
_Hyperotreti_ (Myxinoids); (c) _Cycliae_ (Palaeospondylus).
II. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI.
With four orders : (a) _Heterostraci_ (Coelolepidae,
Psammosteidae, Drepanaspidae, Pteraspidae); (b) _Osteostraci_
(Cephalaspidae, Ateleaspidae, &c.); (c) Antiarchi
(Asterolepidae, Pterichthys, Bothrolepis, &c.); (d) Anaspida
(Birkeniidae).
Class : Pisces.
I. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII.
With four orders : (a) _Pleuropterygii_ (Cladoselache); (b)
_Ichthyotomi_ (Pleuracanthidae); (c) _Acanthodii_
(Diplacanthidae, and Acanthodidae); (d) _Selachii_ (divided
from the structure of the vertebral centres into
Asterospondyli and Tectospondyli).
II. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI.
With one order : _Chimaeroidei._
III. Subclass : DIPNOI.
With two orders : (a) _Sirenoidei_ (Lepidosiren, Ceratodus,
Uronemidae, Ctenodontidae); (b) _Arthrodira_ (Homosteus,
Coccosteus, Dinichthys).
IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI.
A. Order : _Crossopterygii._
With four suborders: (1) _Haplistia_ (Tarassius); (2)
_Rhipidistia_ (Holoptychidae, Rhizodontidae, Osteolepidae);
(3) _Actinistia_ (Coelacanthidae); (4) _Cladistia_
(Polypterus).
B. Order : _Actinopterygii._
With about twenty suborders: (1) _Chondrostei_
(Palaeoniscidae, Platysomidae, Chondrosteidae, Sturgeons);
(2) _Protospondyli_ (Semionotidae, Macrosemiidae,
Pycnodontidae, Eugnathidae, Amiidae, Pachycormidae); (3)
_Aetheospondyli_ (Aspidorhynchidae, Lepidosteidae); (4)
_Isospondyli_ (Pholidophoridae, Osteoglossidae, Clupeidae,
Leptolepidae, &c.); (5) _Plectospondyli_ (Cyprinidae,
Characinidae); (6) _Nematognathi_; (7) _Apodes_; and the
other Teleosteans.
There are, however, grave objections to this system, which cannot be
said to reflect the present state of our knowledge. In his masterly
paper on the evolution of the Dipneusti, L. Dollo has conclusively shown
that the importance of the autostyly on which the definition of the
Holocephali from the Elasmobranchii or Selachii and of the Dipneusti
from the Teleostomi rested, had been exaggerated, and that therefore the
position assigned to these two groups in Günther's classification of
1880 still commended itself. Recent work on _Palaeospondylus_, on the
Ostracoderms, and on the Arthrodira, throws great doubt on the propriety
of the positions given to them in the above classification, and the rank
assigned to the main divisions of the Teleostomi do not commend
themselves to the writer of the present article, who would divide the
fishes into three subclasses:--
I. Cyclostomi
II. Selachii
III. Teleostomi,
the characters and contents of which will be found in separate
articles; in the present state of uncertainty as to their position,
_Palaeospondylus_ and the _Ostracodermi_ are best placed _hors cadre_
and will be dealt with under these names.
The three subclasses here adopted correspond exactly with those proposed
in Theo. Gill's classification of the recent fishes ("Families and
Subfamilies of Fishes," _Mem. Nat. Ac. Sci._ vi. 1893), except that they
are regarded by that authority as classes.
The period dealt with in this chapter, ushered in by the publication of
Günther's _Introduction to the Study of Fishes_, has been one of
extraordinary activity in every branch of ichthyology, recent and
fossil. A glance at the _Zoological Record_, published by the Zoological
Society of London, will show the ever-increasing number of monographs,
morphological papers and systematic contributions, which appear year
after year. The number of new genera and species which are being
proposed is amazing, but it is difficult to tell how many of them will
simply go to swell the already overburdened synonymy. Perhaps a
reasonable estimate of the living species known at the present day would
assess their number at about 13,000.
It is much to be regretted that there is not a single general modern
systematic work on fishes. The most important treatises, the 7th volume
of the _Cambridge Natural History_, by T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger,
and D. S. Jordan's _Guide to the Study of Fishes_, only profess to give
definitions of the families with enumerations of the principal genera.
Günther's _Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum_ therefore
remains the only general descriptive treatise, but its last volume dates
from 1870, and the work is practically obsolete. A second edition of it
was begun in 1894, but only one volume, by Boulenger, has appeared, and
the subject is so vast that it seems doubtful now whether any one will
ever have the time and energy to repeat Günther's achievement. The fish
fauna of the different parts of the world will have to be dealt with
separately, and it is in this direction that descriptive ichthyology is
most likely to progress.
North America, the fishes of which were imperfectly known in 1880, now
possesses a _Descriptive Catalogue_ in 4 stout volumes, by D. S. Jordan
and B. W. Evermann, replacing the synopsis brought out in 1882 by D. S.
Jordan and C. H. Gilbert. A similar treatise should embrace all the
fresh-water species of Africa, the fishes of the two principal river
systems, the Nile and the Congo, having recently been worked out by G.
A. Boulenger. Japanese ichthyology has been taken in hand by D. S.
Jordan and his pupils.
The fishes of the deep sea have been the subject of extensive monographs
by L. Vaillant (_Travailleur_ and _Talisman_), A. Günther
(_Challenger_), A. Alcock (_Investigator_), R. Collett (_Hirondelle_),
S. Garman (_Albatross_) and a general résumé up to 1895 was provided in
G. B. Goode's and T. H. Bean's _Oceanic Ichthyology_. More than 600 true
bathybial fishes are known from depths of 1000 fathoms and more, and a
great deal of evidence has been accumulated to show the general
transition of the surface fauna into the bathybial.
A recent departure has been the exploration of the Antarctic fauna.
Three general reports, on the results of the _Southern Cross_, the
_Belgica_ and the Swedish _South Polar_ expeditions, had already been
published in 1907, and others on the _Scotia_ and _Discovery_ were in
preparation. No very striking new types of fishes have been discovered,
but the results obtained are sufficient to entirely disprove the theory
of bipolarity which some naturalists had advocated. Much has been done
towards ascertaining the life-histories of the fishes of economic
importance, both in Europe and in North America, and our knowledge of
the larval and post-larval forms has made great progress.
Wonderful activity has been displayed in the field of palaeontology, and
the careful working out of the morphology of the archaic types has led
to a better understanding of the general lines of evolution; but it is
to be regretted that very little light on the relationships of the
living groups of Teleosteans has been thrown by the discoveries of
palaeontologists.
Among the most remarkable additions made in recent years, the work of R.
H. Traquair on the problematic fishes _Palaeospondylus_, _Thelodus_,
_Drepanaspis_, _Lanarkia_, _Ateleaspis_, _Birkenia_ and _Lanasius_,
ranks foremost; next to it must be placed the researches of A. S.
Woodward and Bashford Dean on the primitive shark _Cladoselache_, and of
the same authors, J. S. Newberry, C. R. Eastman, E. W. Claypole and L.
Hussakof, on the Arthrodira, a group the affinities of which have been
much discussed.
AUTHORITIES.--The following selection from the extremely extensive
ichthyological literature which has appeared during the period
1880-1906 will supplement the bibliographical notice appended to
section I. I. The General Subject: A. Günther, _Introduction to the
Study of Fishes_ (Edinburgh, 1880); B. Dean, _Fishes Living and
Fossil_ (New York, 1895); T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, "Fishes,"
_Cambridge Natural History_, vii. (1904); D. S. Jordan, _Guide to the
Study of Fishes_ (2 vols., New York, 1905). II. Palaeontological: A.
Fritsch, _Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation
Böhmens_ (vols, i.-iii., Prague, 1879-1894); K. A. von Zittel,
_Handbuch der Paläontologie_, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887); A. Smith
Woodward, _Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum_, vols.
i.-iii. (London, 1889-1895); A. Smith Woodward, _Outlines of
Vertebrate Palaeontology for Students of Zoology_ (Cambridge, 1898);
J. S. Newberry, "The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America," _Mon. U.S.
Geol. Surv._ vol. xvi. (1889); J. V. Rohon, "Die obersilurischen
Fische von Ösel, Thyestidae und Tremataspidae," _Mém. Ac. Imp. Sc.
St-Pétersb._ xxxviii. (1892); O. Jaekel, _Die Selachier von Bolca, ein
Beitrag zur Morphogenie der Wirbeltiere_ (Berlin, 1894); B. Dean,
"Contributions to the Morphology of Cladoselache," _Journ. Morphol._
ix. (1894); R. H. Traquair, "The Asterolepidae," _Mon. Palaeont. Soc._
(1894-1904, in progress); "Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the
Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian Rocks of the South of
Scotland," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xxxix. (1899); L. Dollo, "Sur la
phylogénie des Dipneustes," _Bull. Soc. Belge Géol._ vol. ix. (1895);
E. W. Claypole, "The Ancestry of the Upper Devonian Placoderms of
Ohio," _Amer. Geol._ xvii. (1896); B. Dean, "Palaeontlogical Notes,"
_Mem. N.Y. Ac._ ii. (1901); A. Stewart and S. W. Williston,
"Cretaceous Fishes of Kansas," _Univ. Geol. Surv. Kansas_, vi.
(Topeka, 1901); A. S. Woodward, "Fossil Fishes of the English Chalk,"
_Palaeontogr. Soc._ (1902-1903, etc.); R. H. Traquair, "The Lower
Devonian Fishes of Gemünden.," _Roy. Soc. Edin. Trans._ 40 (1903); W.
J. and I. B. J. Sollas, "Account of the Devonian Fish
Palaeospondylus," _Phil. Trans._ 196 (1903); C. T. Regan, "Phylogeny
of the Teleostomi," _Ann. & Mag. N.H._ (7) 13 (1904); C. R. Eastman,
"Fishes of Monte Bolca," _Bull. Mus. C.Z._ 46 (1904); "Structure and
Relations of Mylostoma," _Op. cit._ 2 (1906); O. Abel, "Fossile
Flugfische," _Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst._ 56 (Wien, 1906); L. Hussakof.
"Studies on the Arthrodira," _Mem. Amer. Mus. N.H._ ix. (1906). III.
Faunistic (recent fishes): (A) EUROPE: E. Bade, _Die
mitteleuropäischen Süsswasserfische_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1901-1902).
GREAT BRITAIN: F. Day, _The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2
vols., London, 1880-1884); J. T. Cunningham, _The Natural History of
the Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands_ (London, 1896);
W. C. M'Intosh and A. T. Masterman, _The Life-Histories of the British
Marine Food-Fishes_ (London, 1897); Sir H. Maxwell, _British
Fresh-water Fish_ (London, 1904); F. G. Aflalo, _British Salt-water
Fish_ (London, 1904). Numerous important researches into the
development, life-conditions and distributions, carried out at the
Biological Laboratories at Plymouth and St Andrews and during the
survey of the fishing grounds of Ireland, have been published by W. L.
Calderwood, J. T. Cunningham, E. W. L. Holt, W. C. M'Intosh, J. W.
Fulton, W. Garstang and Prince in the _Journ. Mar. Biolog. Assoc._,
_The Reports of the Fishery Board of Scotland_, _Scient. Trans. R.
Dublin Soc._ and other periodicals. (B) DENMARK AND SCANDINAVIA: W.
Lilljeborg, _Sveriges och Norges Fiskar_ (3 vols., Upsala, 1881-1891);
F. A. Smith, _A History of Scandinavian Fishes by B. Fries, C. U.
Ekström and C. Sundevall, with Plates by W. von Wright_ (second
edition, revised and completed by F. A. S., Stockholm, 1892); A.
Stuxberg, _Sveriges och Norges Fiskar_ (Göteborg, 1895); C. G. J.
Petersen, _Report of the Danish Biological Station_ (Copenhagen,
1802-1900) (annual reports containing much information on fishes of
and fishing in the Danish seas). (C) FINLAND: G. Sundman and A. J.
Mela, _Finland's Fiskar_ (Helsingfors, 1883-1891). (D) GERMANY: K.
Möbius and F. Heincke, "Die Fische der Ostsee," _Bericht Commiss.
Untersuch. deutsch. Meere_ (Kiel, 1883); F. Heincke, E. Ehrenbaum and
G. Duncker have published their investigations into the life-history
and development of the fishes of Heligoland in _Wissenschaftl.
Meeresuntersuchungen_ (Kiel and Leipzig, 1894-1899); (E) SWITZERLAND:
V. Fatio, _Faune des vertébrés de la Suisse: Poissons_ (2 vols.,
Geneva and Basel, 1882-1890). (F) FRANCE: E. Moreau, _Histoire
naturelle des poissons de la France_ (3 vols., Paris, 1881);
_Supplément_ (Paris, 1891). (G) PYRENEAN PENINSULA: D. Carlos de
Bragança, _Resultados das investigações scientificas feitas a bordo do
yacht "Amelia." Pescas maritimas_, i. and ii. (Lisbon, 1899-1904). (H)
ITALY AND MEDITERRANEAN: P. Döderlein, _Manuale ittiologico del
Mediterraneo_ (Palermo, 1881-1891, not completed; interrupted by the
death of the author); E. W. L. Holt, "Recherches sur la reproduction
des poissons osseux, principalement dans le golfe de Marseille," _Ann.
Mus. Mars._ v. (Marseilles, 1899); (I) WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA: L.
Lortet, "Poissons et reptiles du lac de Tibériade," _Arch. Mus.
d'Hist. Nat. Lyon_, iii. (1883); S. Herzenstein, _Wissenschaftliche
Resultate der von N. M. Przewalski nach Central Asien unternommenen
Reisen: Fische_ (St Petersburg, 1888-1891); L. Berg, _Fishes of
Turkestan_ (Russian text, St Petersburg, 1905); G. Radde, S. Kamensky
and F. F. Kawraisky have worked out the Cyprinids and Salmonids of the
Caucasus (Tiflis, 1896-1899). (J) JAPAN: F. Steindachner and L.
Döderlein, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fische Japans," _Denkschr. Ak.
Wien_, (vols. 67 and 68, 1883); K. Otaki, T. Fujita and T. Higurashi,
_Fishes of Japan_ (in Japanese) (Tokyo, 1903, in progress). Numerous
papers by D. S. Jordan, in collaboration with J. O. Snyder, E. C.
Starks, H. W. Fowler and N. Sindo. (K) EAST INDIES: F. Day, _The Fauna
of British India: Fishes_ (2 vols., London, 1889) (chiefly an
abridgment of the author's _Fishes of India_); M. Weber, "Die
Süsswasserfische des Indischen Archipels," _Zool. Ergebnisse e. Reise
in Niederl. Ostind._ iii. (Leiden, 1894). Numerous contributions to
the fauna of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago by G. A. Boulenger,
L. Vaillant, F. Steindachner, G. Duncker, W. Volz and C. L. Popta. (L)
AFRICA: G. A. Boulenger, _Matériaux pour la faune du Congo: poissons
nouveaux_ (Brussels, 1898-1902, in progress); and _Poissons du bassin
du Congo_ (Brussels, 1901); G. Pfeffer, _Die Thierwelt Ostafrikas:
Fische_ (Berlin, 1896); A. Günther, G. A. Boulenger, G. Pfeffer, F.
Steindachner, D. Vinciguerra, J. Pellegrin and E. Lönnberg have
published numerous contributions to the fish-fauna of tropical Africa
in various periodicals. The marine fishes of South Africa have
received special attention on the part of J. D. F. Gilchrist, _Marine
Investigations in South Africa_, i. and ii. (1898-1904), and new
species have been described by G. A. Boulenger and C. T. Regan. (M)
NORTH AMERICA: D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, _The Fishes of North
and Middle America_ (4 vols., Washington, 1896-1900); D. S. Jordan and
B. W. Evermann, _American Food and Game Fishes_ (New York, 1902); D.
S. Jordan and C. H. Gilbert "The Fishes of Bering Sea," in _Fur-Seals
and Fur-Seal Islands_ (Washington, 1899); The U.S. Bureau of Fisheries
(since 1903) has published annually a _Report_ and a _Bulletin_,
containing a vast amount of information on North American fishes and
every subject having a bearing on the fisheries of the United States;
S. E. Meek, "Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico," _Field Columb. Mus. Zool._
v. (1904). (N) SOUTH AMERICA: C. H. and R. S. Eigenmann, "A Catalogue
of the Fresh-water Fishes of South America," _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus._ 14
(Washington, 1891); the same authors, F. Steindachner, G. A.
Boulenger, C. Berg and C. T. Regan have published contributions in
periodicals on this fauna. (O) AUSTRALIA: J. E. Tenison-Woods, _Fish
and Fisheries of New South Wales_ (Sydney, 1882); J. Douglas Ogilby,
Edible Fishes and Crustaceans of New South Wales (Sydney, 1893); J.
Douglas Ogilby and E. R. Waite are authors of numerous papers on
Australian fishes in _Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales_ and _Rec. Austral.
Mus._ (P) SOUTH PACIFIC: D S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, "Shore Fishes
of the Hawaiian Islands," _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ 23 (1905). (Q)
MADAGASCAR: H. E. Sauvage, _Histoire physique, naturelle et politique
de Madagascar_, par A. Grandidier. xvi.; _Poissons_ (Paris, 1891). (R)
OCEANIC FISHES: G. B. Goode and T. H. Bean, _Oceanic Ichthyology_
(Washington, 1895); A. Günther, _Deep-sea Fishes of the "Challenger"
Expedition_ (London, 1887); C. H. Gilbert, "Deep-sea Fishes of the
Hawaiian Islands," _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ 23 (1905); R. Collett,
_Norske Nordhavs Expedition: Fiske_ (Christiania, 1880); C. F. Lütken,
_Dijmphna-Togtets Zoologisk-botaniske Udbytte: Kara-Havets Fiske_
(Copenhagen, 1886); L. Vaillant, _Expéditions scientifiques du
"Travailleur" et du "Talisman": Poissons_ (Paris, 1888); A. Agassiz,
_Three Cruises of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer "Blake"_
(Boston and New York, 1888); A. Alcock, _Illustrations of the Zoology
of H.M.S. "Investigator": Fishes_ (Calcutta, 1892-1899, in progress);
A. Alcock, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Deep-sea Fishes in the
Indian Museum_ (Calcutta, 1899, contains references to all the
previous papers of the author on the subject); R. Collett, _Résultats
des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par Albert I^er prince de
Monaco: poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht "l'Hirondelle,"_
(Monaco, 1896); R. Koehler, _Résultats scientifiques de la campagne du
"Caudan,"_ (Paris, 1896); C. H. Gilbert and F. Cramer, "Report on the
Fishes dredged in Deep Water near the Hawaiian Islands," _Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus._ xix. (Washington, 1896); C. Lütken, "Spolia Atlantica,"
_Vidensk. Selsk. Skr._ vii. and ix. (Copenhagen, 1892-1898); C.
Lütken, _Danish Ingolf Expedition_, ii.: _Ichthyological Results_
(Copenhagen, 1898); S. Garman, "Reports on an Exploration off the West
Coast of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos
Islands in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission
Steamer "Albatross," during 1891," _Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool._ vol. xxiv.
(Cambridge, U.S.A., 1899). (S) ANTARCTIC FISHES: G. A. Boulenger,
_Report on the Collections made during the voyage of the "Southern
Cross": Fishes_ (London, 1902); L. Dollo, _Expédition Antarctique
Belge_ (S.Y. "Belgica"). _Poissons_ (Antwerp, 1904); E. Lönnberg,
_Swedish South Polar Expedition: Fishes_ (Stockholm, 1905); G. A.
Boulenger, _Fishes of the "Discovery" Antarctic Expedition_ (London,
1906). (G. A. B.)