CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF LAR WHENCE THE BRAHMINS COME.
Lar is a Province lying towards the west when you quit the place where
the Body of St. Thomas lies; and all the _Abraiaman_ in the world come
from that province.{1}
You must know that these Abraiaman are the best merchants in the world,
and the most truthful, for they would not tell a lie for anything on
earth. [If a foreign merchant who does not know the ways of the country
applies to them and entrusts his goods to them, they will take charge
of these, and sell them in the most loyal manner, seeking zealously the
profit of the foreigner and asking no commission except what he pleases
to bestow.] They eat no flesh, and drink no wine, and live a life of
great chastity, having intercourse with no women except with their
wives; nor would they on any account take what belongs to another; so
their law commands. And they are all distinguished by wearing a thread
of cotton over one shoulder and tied under the other arm, so that it
crosses the breast and the back.
They have a rich and powerful King who is eager to purchase precious
stones and large pearls; and he sends these Abraiaman merchants into
the kingdom of Maabar called SOLI, which is the best and noblest
Province of India, and where the best pearls are found, to fetch him as
many of these as they can get, and he pays them double the cost price
for all. So in this way he has a vast treasure of such valuables.{2}
These Abraiaman are Idolaters; and they pay greater heed to signs
and omens than any people that exists. I will mention as an example
one of their customs. To every day of the week they assign an augury
of this sort. Suppose that there is some purchase in hand, he who
proposes to buy, when he gets up in the morning takes note of his own
shadow in the sun, which he says ought to be on that day of such and
such a length; and if his shadow be of the proper length for the day
he completes his purchase; if not, he will on no account do so, but
waits till his shadow corresponds with that prescribed. For there is a
length established for the shadow for every individual day of the week;
and the merchant will complete no business unless he finds his shadow
of the length set down for that particular day. [Also to each day in
the week they assign one unlucky hour, which they term _Choiach_. For
example, on Monday the hour of Half-tierce, on Tuesday that of Tierce,
on Wednesday Nones, and so on.{3}]
Again, if one of them is in the house, and is meditating a purchase,
should he see a tarantula (such as are very common in that country) on
the wall, provided it advances from a quarter that he deems lucky, he
will complete his purchase at once; but if it comes from a quarter that
he considers unlucky he will not do so on any inducement. Moreover,
if in going out, he hears any one sneeze, if it seems to him a good
omen he will go on, but if the reverse he will sit down on the spot
where he is, as long as he thinks that he ought to tarry before going
on again. Or, if in travelling along the road he sees a swallow fly
by, should its direction be lucky he will proceed, but if not he will
turn back again; in fact they are worse (in these whims) than so many
Patarins!{4}
These Abraiaman are very long-lived, owing to their extreme abstinence
in eating. And they never allow themselves to be let blood in any part
of the body. They have capital teeth, which is owing to a certain herb
they chew, which greatly improves their appearance, and is also very
good for the health.
There is another class of people called _Chughi_, who are indeed
properly Abraiaman, but they form a religious order devoted to the
Idols. They are extremely long-lived, every man of them living to 150
or 200 years. They eat very little, but what they do eat is good; rice
and milk chiefly. And these people make use of a very strange beverage;
for they make a potion of sulphur and quicksilver mixt together and
this they drink twice every month. This, they say, gives them long
life; and it is a potion they are used to take from their childhood.{5}
There are certain members of this Order who lead the most ascetic life
in the world, going stark naked; and these worship the Ox. Most of
them have a small ox of brass or pewter or gold which they wear tied
over the forehead. Moreover they take cow-dung and burn it, and make a
powder thereof; and make an ointment of it, and daub themselves withal,
doing this with as great devotion as Christians do show in using Holy
Water. [Also if they meet any one who treats them well, they daub a
little of this powder on the middle of his forehead.{6}]
They eat not from bowls or trenchers, but put their victuals on leaves
of the Apple of Paradise and other big leaves; these, however, they
use dry, never green. For they say the green leaves have a soul in
them, and so it would be a sin. And they would rather die than do what
they deem their Law pronounces to be sin. If any one asks how it comes
that they are not ashamed to go stark naked as they do, they say, “We
go naked because naked we came into the world, and we desire to have
nothing about us that is of this world. Moreover, we have no sin of
the flesh to be conscious of, and therefore we are not ashamed of our
nakedness, any more than you are to show your hand or your face. You
who are conscious of the sins of the flesh do well to have shame, and
to cover your nakedness.”
They would not kill an animal on any account, not even a fly, or a
flea, or a louse,{7} or anything in fact that has life; for they
say these have all souls, and it would be sin to do so. They eat no
vegetable in a green state, only such as are dry. And they sleep on
the ground stark naked, without a scrap of clothing on them or under
them, so that it is a marvel they don’t all die, in place of living so
long as I have told you. They fast every day in the year, and drink
nought but water. And when a novice has to be received among them they
keep him awhile in their convent, and make him follow their rule of
life. And then, when they desire to put him to the test, they send for
some of those girls who are devoted to the Idols, and make them try
the continence of the novice with their blandishments. If he remains
indifferent they retain him, but if he shows any emotion they expel him
from their society. For they say they will have no man of loose desires
among them.
They are such cruel and perfidious Idolaters that it is very devilry!
They say that they burn the bodies of the dead, because if they were
not burnt worms would be bred which would eat the body; and when no
more food remained for them these worms would die, and the soul
belonging to that body would bear the sin and the punishment of their
death. And that is why they burn their dead!
Now I have told you about a great part of the people of the great
Province of Maabar and their customs; but I have still other things to
tell of this same Province of Maabar, so I will speak of a city thereof
which is called Cail.
NOTE 1.—The form of the word _Abraiaman, -main or -min_, by which
Marco here and previously denotes the Brahmans, probably represents
an incorrect Arabic plural, such as _Abráhamín_; the correct Arabic
form is _Baráhimah_.
What is said here of the Brahmans coming from “_Lar_, a province
west of St. Thomas’s,” of their having a special King, etc., is all
very obscure, and that I suspect through erroneous notions.
LAR-DESA, “The Country of Lár,” properly _Láṭ-desa_, was an
early name for the territory of Guzerat and the northern Konkan,
embracing _Saimur_ (the modern Chaul, as I believe), Tana, and
Baroch. It appears in Ptolemy in the form _Larike_. The sea to the
west of that coast was in the early Mahomedan times called the Sea
of Lár, and the language spoken on its shores is called by Mas’udi
_Lári_. Abulfeda’s authority, Ibn Said, speaks of Lár and Guzerat
as identical. That position would certainly be very ill described
as lying west of Madras. The kingdom most nearly answering to
that description in Polo’s age would be that of the Bellál Rajas
of Dwara Samudra, which corresponded in a general way to modern
Mysore. (_Mas’udi_, I. 330, 381; II. 85; _Gildem._ 185; _Elliot_,
I. 66.)
That Polo’s ideas on this subject were incorrect seems clear
from his conception of the Brahmans as a class of _merchants_.
Occasionally they may have acted as such, and especially as agents;
but the only case I can find of Brahmans as a class adopting
trade is that of the Konkani Brahmans, and they are said to have
taken this step when expelled from Goa, which was their chief
seat, by the Portuguese. Marsden supposes that there has been
confusion between Brahmans and Banyans; and, as Guzerat or Lár
was the country from which the latter chiefly came, there is much
probability in this.
The high virtues ascribed to the Brahmans and Indian merchants were
perhaps in part matter of tradition, come down from the stories
of Palladius and the like; but the eulogy is so constant among
mediæval travellers that it must have had a solid foundation.
In fact it would not be difficult to trace a chain of similar
testimony from ancient times down to our own. Arrian says no Indian
was ever accused of falsehood. Hiuen Tsang ascribes to the people
of India eminent uprightness, honesty, and disinterestedness. Friar
Jordanus (_circa_ 1330) says the people of Lesser India (Sind
and Western India) were true in speech and eminent in justice;
and we may also refer to the high character given to the Hindus
by Abu’l Fazl. After 150 years of European trade indeed we find
a sad deterioration. Padre Vincenzo (1672) speaks of fraud as
greatly prevalent among the Hindu traders. It was then commonly
said at Surat that it took three Jews to make a Chinaman, and
three Chinamen to make a Banyan. Yet Pallas, in the last century,
noticing the Banyan colony at Astrakhan, says its members were
notable for an upright dealing that made them greatly preferable to
Armenians. And that wise and admirable public servant, the late Sir
William Sleeman, in our own time, has said that he knew no class
of men in the world more strictly honourable than the mercantile
classes of India.
We know too well that there is a very different aspect of the
matter. All extensive intercourse between two races far asunder
in habits and ideas, seems to be demoralising in some degrees
to both parties, especially to the weaker. But can we say that
deterioration has been all on one side? In these days of lying
labels and plastered shirtings does the character of English trade
and English goods stand as high in Asia as it did half a century
ago! (_Pèl. Boudd._ II. 83; _Jordanus_, p. 22; _Ayeen Akb._ III. 8;
_P. Vincenzo_, p. 114; _Pallas, Beyträge_, III. 85; _Rambles and
Recns._ II. 143.)
NOTE 2.—The kingdom of Maabar called _Soli_ is CHOLA or SOLADESAM,
of which Kanchi (Conjeveram) was the ancient capital.[1] In the
Ceylon Annals the continental invaders are frequently termed
_Solli_. The high terms of praise applied to it as “the best and
noblest province of India,” seem to point to the well-watered
fertility of Tanjore; but what is said of the pearls would extend
the territory included to the shores of the Gulf of Manár.
NOTE 3.—Abraham Roger gives from the Calendar of the Coromandel
Brahmans the character, lucky or unlucky, of every hour of every
day of the week; and there is also a chapter on the subject in
_Sonnerat_ (I. 304 _seqq._). For a happy explanation of the term
_Choiach_ I am indebted to Dr. Caldwell: “This apparently difficult
word can be identified much more easily than most others. Hindu
astrologers teach that there is an unlucky hour every day in the
month, _i.e._ during the period of the moon’s abode in every
_nákshatra_, or lunar mansion, throughout the lunation. This
inauspicious period is called _Tyâjya_, ‘rejected.’ Its mean length
is one hour and thirty-six minutes, European time. The precise
moment when this period commences differs in each nákshatra, or
(which comes to the same thing) in every day in the lunar month.
It sometimes occurs in the daytime and sometimes at night;—see
_Colonel Warren’s Kala Sankatila_, Madras, 1825, p. 388. The Tamil
pronunciation of the word is _tiyâcham_, and when the nominative
case-termination of the word is rejected, as all the Tamil
case-terminations were by the Mahomedans, who were probably Marco
Polo’s informants, it becomes _tiyâch_, to which form of the word
Marco’s _Choiach_ is as near as could be expected.” (_MS. Note._)[2]
The phrases used in the passage from Ramusio to express the time
of day are taken from the canonical hours of prayer. The following
passage from _Robert de Borron’s Romance of Merlin_ illustrates
these terms: Gauvain “quand il se levoit le matin, avoit la force
al millor chevalier del monde; et quant vint à heure de prime si
li doubloit, et à heure de tierce aussi; et quant il vint à eure
de midi si revenoit à sa première force ou il avoit esté le matin;
et quant vint à eure de nonne et à toutes les seures de la nuit
estoit-il toudis en sa première force.” (Quoted in introd. to
_Messir Gauvain_, etc., edited by _C. Hippeau_, Paris, 1862, pp.
xii.–xiii.) The term _Half-Tierce_ is frequent in mediæval Italian,
_e.g._ in Dante:—
“_Lèvati su, disse’l Maestro, in piede:
La via è lunga, e’l cammino è malvagio:
E già il Sole a_ mezza terza _riede._” (Inf. xxxiv,)
_Half-prime_ we have in Chaucer:—
“Say forth thy tale and tary not the time
Lo Depëford, and it is half way prime.”
—(_Reeve’s Prologue._)
Definitions of these terms as given by Sir H. Nicolas and Mr.
Thomas Wright (_Chron. of Hist._ p. 195, and _Marco Polo_, p. 392)
do not agree with those of Italian authorities; perhaps in the
north they were applied with variation. Dante dwells on the matter
in two passages of his _Convito_ (Tratt. III. cap. 6, and Tratt.
IV. cap. 23); and the following diagram elucidates the terms in
accordance with his words, and with other Italian authority, oral
and literary:—
│ “_Te lucis ante terminum._” │
│ │
│ † 12 6 │
│ . │
│ Compieta. . │
│ . │
│ * 11 5 │
│ . │
│ Mezza-Vespro. . │
│ . │
│ * 10 4 │
│ . │
│ . │
│ . │
│ Vespro. † 9 3 │
│ . │
│ . E │
│ . c P.M. │
│ * 8 c 2 │
│ . l │
│ Mezza-Nona. . e C │
│ . s i │
│ * 7 i 1 v │
│ . a i │
│ Nona. . s l │
│ . t │
│ ⚜ 6 i 12 H │
│ . c o │
│ Sesta. . a u │
│ . l r │
│ * 5 11 s │
│ . H │
│ . o │
│ . u A.M. │
│ * 4 r 10 │
│ . s │
│ . │
│ . │
│ Terza. † 3 9 │
│ . │
│ . │
│ . │
│ * 2 8 │
│ . │
│ Mezza-Terza. . │
│ . │
│ * 1 7 │
│ . │
│ Prima. . │
│ . │
│ † 12 6 │
│ │
│ “_Jam Lucis orto Sidere._” │
NOTE 4.—Valentyn mentions among what the Coromandel Hindus
reckon unlucky rencounters which will induce a man to turn back
on the road: an empty can, buffaloes, donkeys, a dog or he-goat
_without_ food in his mouth, a monkey, a loose hart, a goldsmith, a
carpenter, a barber, a tailor, a cotton-cleaner, a smith, a widow,
a corpse, a person coming from a funeral without having washed or
changed, men carrying butter, oil, sweet milk, molasses, acids,
iron, or weapons of war. Lucky objects to meet are an elephant, a
camel, a laden cart, an unladen horse, a cow or bullock laden with
water (if unladen ’tis an ill omen), a dog or he-goat _with_ food
in the mouth, a cat on the right hand, one carrying meat, curds, or
sugar, etc., etc. (p. 91). (See also _Sonnerat_, I. 73.)
NOTE 5.—_Chughi_ of course stands for JOGI, used loosely for any
Hindu ascetic. Arghun Khan of Persia (see Prologue, ch. xvii.),
who was much given to alchemy and secret science, had asked of the
Indian Bakhshis how they prolonged their lives to such an extent.
They assured him that a mixture of sulphur and mercury was the
Elixir of Longevity. Arghun accordingly took this precious potion
for eight months;—and died shortly after! (See _Hammer_, _Ilkhans_,
I. 391–393, and _Q. R._ p. 194.) Bernier mentions wandering Jogis
who had the art of preparing mercury so admirably that one or two
grains taken every morning restored the body to perfect health (II.
130). The _Mercurius Vitae_ of Paracelsus, which, according to
him, renewed youth, was composed chiefly of mercury and antimony.
(_Opera_, II. 20.) Sulphur and mercury, combined under different
conditions and proportions, were regarded by the Alchemists both
of East and West as the origin of all the metals. Quicksilver
was called the mother of the metals, and sulphur the father.
(See _Vincent. Bellov. Spec. Natur._ VII. c. 60, 62, and _Bl.
Ain-i-Akbari_, p. 40.)
[We read in Ma Huan’s account of Cochin (_J. R. A. S._ April, 1896,
p. 343): “Here also is another class of men, called Chokis (Yogi),
who lead austere lives like the Taoists of China, but who, however,
are married. These men from the time they are born do not have
their heads shaved or combed, but plait their hair into several
tails, which hang over their shoulders; they wear no clothes, but
round their waists they fasten a strip of rattan, over which they
hang a piece of white calico; they carry a conch-shell, which they
blow as they go along the road; they are accompanied by their
wives, who simply wear a small bit of cotton cloth round their
loins. Alms of rice and money are given to them by the people whose
houses they visit.”
(See _F. Bernier_, _Voy._, ed. 1699, II., _Des Gentils de
l’Hindoustan_, pp. 97, _seqq._)
We read in the _Nine Heavens_ of Amír Khusrú (_Elliot_, III.
p. 563): “A _jogí_ who could restrain his breath in this way
(diminishing the daily number of their expirations of breath) lived
in an idol to an age of more than three hundred and fifty years.”
“I have read in a book that certain chiefs of Turkistán sent
ambassadors with letters to the Kings of India on the following
mission, viz.: that they, the chiefs, had been informed that
in India drugs were procurable which possessed the property of
prolonging human life, by the use of which the King of India
attained to a very great age ... and the chiefs of Turkistán
begged that some of this medicine might be sent to them, and also
information as to the method by which the Ráís preserved their
health so long.” (_Elliot_, II. p. 174.)—H. C.]
“The worship of the ox is still common enough, but I can find no
trace of the use of the effigy worn on the forehead. The two Tam
Pundits whom I consulted, said that there was no trace of the
custom in Tamil literature, but they added that the usage was
so truly Hindu in character, and was so particularly described,
that they had no doubt it prevailed in the time of the person who
described it.” (_MS. Note by the Rev. Dr. Caldwell._)
I may add that the _Jangams_, a Linga-worshipping sect of Southern
India, wear a copper or silver _linga_ either round the neck _or on
the forehead_. The name of Jangam means “movable,” and refers to
their wearing and worshipping the portable symbol instead of the
fixed one like the proper Saivas. (_Wilson, Mack. Coll._ II. 3; _J.
R. A. S._ N.S. V. 142 _seqq._)
NOTE 6.—In G. T. _proques_, which the Glossary to that edition
absurdly renders _porc_; it is some form apparently of _pidocchio_.
NOTE 7.—It would seem that there is no eccentricity of man in any
part of the world for which a close parallel shall not be found
in some other part. Such strange probation as is here spoken of,
appears to have had too close a parallel in the old Celtic Church,
and perhaps even, at an earlier date, in the Churches of Africa.
(See _Todd’s Life of St. Patrick_, p. 91, note and references, and
_Saturday Review_ of 13th July, 1867, p. 65.) The latter describes
a system absolutely like that in the text, but does not quote
authorities.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
[1] From Sola was formed apparently _Sola-mandala_ or _Chola-mandala_,
which the Portuguese made into Choromandel and the Dutch into
Coromandel.
[2] I may add that possibly the real reading may have been _thoiach_.