THE THEORIES OF MODERN PHYSICS
MEANING OF PHYSICAL THEORIES.--The laity are struck to see how ephemeral
scientific theories are. After some years of prosperity, they see them
successively abandoned; they see ruins accumulate upon ruins; they
foresee that the theories fashionable to-day will shortly succumb in
their turn and hence they conclude that these are absolutely idle. This
is what they call the _bankruptcy of science_.
Their skepticism is superficial; they give no account to themselves of
the aim and the rôle of scientific theories; otherwise they would
comprehend that the ruins may still be good for something.
No theory seemed more solid than that of Fresnel which attributed light
to motions of the ether. Yet now Maxwell's is preferred. Does this mean
the work of Fresnel was in vain? No, because the aim of Fresnel was not
to find out whether there is really an ether, whether it is or is not
formed of atoms, whether these atoms really move in this or that sense;
his object was to foresee optical phenomena.
Now, Fresnel's theory always permits of this, to-day as well as before
Maxwell. The differential equations are always true; they can always be
integrated by the same procedures and the results of this integration
always retain their value.
And let no one say that thus we reduce physical theories to the rôle of
mere practical recipes; these equations express relations, and if the
equations remain true it is because these relations preserve their
reality. They teach us, now as then, that there is such and such a
relation between some thing and some other thing; only this something
formerly we called _motion_; we now call it _electric current_. But
these appellations were only images substituted for the real objects
which nature will eternally hide from us. The true relations between
these real objects are the only reality we can attain to, and the only
condition is that the same relations exist between these objects as
between the images by which we are forced to replace them. If these
relations are known to us, what matter if we deem it convenient to
replace one image by another.
That some periodic phenomenon (an electric oscillation, for instance) is
really due to the vibration of some atom which, acting like a pendulum,
really moves in this or that sense, is neither certain nor interesting.
But that between electric oscillation, the motion of the pendulum and
all periodic phenomena there exists a close relationship which
corresponds to a profound reality; that this relationship, this
similitude, or rather this parallelism extends into details; that it is
a consequence of more general principles, that of energy and that of
least action; this is what we can affirm; this is the truth which will
always remain the same under all the costumes in which we may deem it
useful to deck it out.
Numerous theories of dispersion have been proposed; the first was
imperfect and contained only a small part of truth. Afterwards came that
of Helmholtz; then it was modified in various ways, and its author
himself imagined another founded on the principles of Maxwell. But, what
is remarkable, all the scientists who came after Helmholtz reached the
same equations, starting from points of departure in appearance very
widely separated. I will venture to say these theories are all true at
the same time, not only because they make us foresee the same phenomena,
but because they put in evidence a true relation, that of absorption and
anomalous dispersion. What is true in the premises of these theories is
what is common to all the authors; this is the affirmation of this or
that relation between certain things which some call by one name, others
by another.
The kinetic theory of gases has given rise to many objections, which we
could hardly answer if we pretended to see in it the absolute truth. But
all these objections will not preclude its having been useful, and
particularly so in revealing to us a relation true and but for it
profoundly hidden, that of the gaseous pressure and the osmotic
pressure. In this sense, then, it may be said to be true.
When a physicist finds a contradiction between two theories equally
dear to him, he sometimes says: "We will not bother about that, but hold
firmly the two ends of the chain, though the intermediate links are
hidden from us." This argument of an embarrassed theologian would be
ridiculous if it were necessary to attribute to physical theories the
sense the laity give them. In case of contradiction, one of them at
least must then be regarded as false. It is no longer the same if in
them be sought only what should be sought. May be they both express true
relations and the contradiction is only in the images wherewith we have
clothed the reality.
To those who find we restrict too much the domain accessible to the
scientist, I answer: These questions which we interdict to you and which
you regret, are not only insoluble, they are illusory and devoid of
meaning.
Some philosopher pretends that all physics may be explained by the
mutual impacts of atoms. If he merely means there are between physical
phenomena the same relations as between the mutual impacts of a great
number of balls, well and good, that is verifiable, that is perhaps
true. But he means something more; and we think we understand it because
we think we know what impact is in itself; why? Simply because we have
often seen games of billiards. Shall we think God, contemplating his
work, feels the same sensations as we in watching a billiard match? If
we do not wish to give this bizarre sense to his assertion, if neither
do we wish the restricted sense I have just explained, which is good
sense, then it has none.
Hypotheses of this sort have therefore only a metaphorical sense. The
scientist should no more interdict them than the poet does metaphors;
but he ought to know what they are worth. They may be useful to give a
certain satisfaction to the mind, and they will not be injurious
provided they are only indifferent hypotheses.
These considerations explain to us why certain theories, supposed to be
abandoned and finally condemned by experiment, suddenly arise from their
ashes and recommence a new life. It is because they expressed true
relations; and because they had not ceased to do so when, for one reason
or another, we felt it necessary to enunciate the same relations in
another language. So they retained a sort of latent life.
Scarcely fifteen years ago was there anything more ridiculous, more
naïvely antiquated, than Coulomb's fluids? And yet here they are
reappearing under the name of _electrons_. Wherein do these permanently
electrified molecules differ from Coulomb's electric molecules? It is
true that in the electrons the electricity is supported by a little, a
very little matter; in other words, they have a mass (and yet this is
now contested); but Coulomb did not deny mass to his fluids, or, if he
did, it was only with reluctance. It would be rash to affirm that the
belief in electrons will not again suffer eclipse; it was none the less
curious to note this unexpected resurrection.
But the most striking example is Carnot's principle. Carnot set it up
starting from false hypotheses; when it was seen that heat is not
indestructible, but may be transformed into work, his ideas were
completely abandoned; afterwards Clausius returned to them and made them
finally triumph. Carnot's theory, under its primitive form, expressed,
aside from true relations, other inexact relations, _débris_ of
antiquated ideas; but the presence of these latter did not change the
reality of the others. Clausius had only to discard them as one lops off
dead branches.
The result was the second fundamental law of thermodynamics. There were
always the same relations; though these relations no longer subsisted,
at least in appearance, between the same objects. This was enough for
the principle to retain its value. And even the reasonings of Carnot
have not perished because of that; they were applied to a material
tainted with error; but their form (that is to say, the essential)
remained correct.
What I have just said illuminates at the same time the rôle of general
principles such as the principle of least action, or that of the
conservation of energy.
These principles have a very high value; they were obtained in seeking
what there was in common in the enunciation of numerous physical laws;
they represent therefore, as it were, the quintessence of innumerable
observations.
However, from their very generality a consequence results to which I
have called attention in Chapter VIII, namely, that they can no longer
be verified. As we can not give a general definition of energy, the
principle of the conservation of energy signifies simply that there is
_something_ which remains constant. Well, whatever be the new notions
that future experiments shall give us about the world, we are sure in
advance that there will be something there which will remain constant
and which may be called _energy_.
Is this to say that the principle has no meaning and vanishes in a
tautology? Not at all; it signifies that the different things to which
we give the name of _energy_ are connected by a true kinship; it affirms
a real relation between them. But then if this principle has a meaning,
it may be false; it may be that we have not the right to extend
indefinitely its applications, and yet it is certain beforehand to be
verified in the strict acceptation of the term; how then shall we know
when it shall have attained all the extension which can legitimately be
given it? Just simply when it shall cease to be useful to us, that is,
to make us correctly foresee new phenomena. We shall be sure in such a
case that the relation affirmed is no longer real; for otherwise it
would be fruitful; experiment, without directly contradicting a new
extension of the principle, will yet have condemned it.
PHYSICS AND MECHANISM.--Most theorists have a constant predilection for
explanations borrowed from mechanics or dynamics. Some would be
satisfied if they could explain all phenomena by motions of molecules
attracting each other according to certain laws. Others are more
exacting; they would suppress attractions at a distance; their molecules
should follow rectilinear paths from which they could be made to deviate
only by impacts. Others again, like Hertz, suppress forces also, but
suppose their molecules subjected to geometric attachments analogous,
for instance, to those of our linkages; they try thus to reduce dynamics
to a sort of kinematics.
In a word, all would bend nature into a certain form outside of which
their mind could not feel satisfied. Will nature be sufficiently
flexible for that?
We shall examine this question in Chapter XII, _à propos_ of Maxwell's
theory. Whenever the principles of energy and of least action are
satisfied, we shall see not only that there is always one possible
mechanical explanation, but that there is always an infinity of them.
Thanks to a well-known theorem of König's on linkages, it could be
shown that we can, in an infinity of ways, explain everything by
attachments after the manner of Hertz, or also by central forces.
Without doubt it could be demonstrated just as easily that everything
can always be explained by simple impacts.
For that, of course, we need not be content with ordinary matter, with
that which falls under our senses and whose motions we observe directly.
Either we shall suppose that this common matter is formed of atoms whose
internal motions elude us, the displacement of the totality alone
remaining accessible to our senses. Or else we shall imagine some one of
those subtile fluids which under the name of _ether_ or under other
names, have at all times played so great a rôle in physical theories.
Often one goes further and regards the ether as the sole primitive
matter or even as the only true matter. The more moderate consider
common matter as condensed ether, which is nothing startling; but others
reduce still further its importance and see in it nothing more than the
geometric locus of the ether's singularities. For instance, what we call
_matter_ is for Lord Kelvin only the locus of points where the ether is
animated by vortex motions; for Riemann, it was the locus of points
where ether is constantly destroyed; for other more recent authors,
Wiechert or Larmor, it is the locus of points where the ether undergoes
a sort of torsion of a very particular nature. If the attempt is made to
occupy one of these points of view, I ask myself by what right shall we
extend to the ether, under pretext that this is the true matter,
mechanical properties observed in ordinary matter, which is only false
matter.
The ancient fluids, caloric, electricity, etc., were abandoned when it
was perceived that heat is not indestructible. But they were abandoned
for another reason also. In materializing them, their individuality was,
so to speak, emphasized, a sort of abyss was opened between them. This
had to be filled up on the coming of a more vivid feeling of the unity
of nature, and the perception of the intimate relations which bind
together all its parts. Not only did the old physicists, in multiplying
fluids, create entities unnecessarily, but they broke real ties.
It is not sufficient for a theory to affirm no false relations, it must
not hide true relations.
And does our ether really exist? We know the origin of our belief in the
ether. If light reaches us from a distant star, during several years it
was no longer on the star and not yet on the earth; it must then be
somewhere and sustained, so to speak, by some material support.
The same idea may be expressed under a more mathematical and more
abstract form. What we ascertain are the changes undergone by material
molecules; we see, for instance, that our photographic plate feels the
consequences of phenomena of which the incandescent mass of the star was
the theater several years before. Now, in ordinary mechanics the state
of the system studied depends only on its state at an instant
immediately anterior; therefore the system satisfies differential
equations. On the contrary, if we should not believe in the ether, the
state of the material universe would depend not only on the state
immediately preceding, but on states much older; the system would
satisfy equations of finite differences. It is to escape this derogation
of the general laws of mechanics that we have invented the ether.
That would still only oblige us to fill up, with the ether, the
interplanetary void, but not to make it penetrate the bosom of the
material media themselves. Fizeau's experiment goes further. By the
interference of rays which have traversed air or water in motion, it
seems to show us two different media interpenetrating and yet changing
place one with regard to the other.
We seem to touch the ether with the finger.
Yet experiments may be conceived which would make us touch it still more
nearly. Suppose Newton's principle, of the equality of action and
reaction, no longer true if applied to matter _alone_, and that we have
established it. The geometric sum of all the forces applied to all the
material molecules would no longer be null. It would be necessary then,
if we did not wish to change all mechanics, to introduce the ether, in
order that this action which matter appeared to experience should be
counterbalanced by the reaction of matter on something.
Or again, suppose we discover that optical and electrical phenomena are
influenced by the motion of the earth. We should be led to conclude that
these phenomena might reveal to us not only the relative motions of
material bodies, but what would seem to be their absolute motions.
Again, an ether would be necessary, that these so-called absolute
motions should not be their displacements with regard to a void space,
but their displacements with regard to something concrete.
Shall we ever arrive at that? I have not this hope, I shall soon say
why, and yet it is not so absurd, since others have had it.
For instance, if the theory of Lorentz, of which I shall speak in detail
further on in Chapter XIII., were true, Newton's principle would not
apply to matter _alone_, and the difference would not be very far from
being accessible to experiment.
On the other hand, many researches have been made on the influence of
the earth's motion. The results have always been negative. But these
experiments were undertaken because the outcome was not sure in advance,
and, indeed, according to the ruling theories, the compensation would be
only approximate, and one might expect to see precise methods give
positive results.
I believe that such a hope is illusory; it was none the less interesting
to show that a success of this sort would open to us, in some sort, a
new world.
And now I must be permitted a digression; I must explain, in fact, why I
do not believe, despite Lorentz, that more precise observations can ever
put in evidence anything else than the relative displacements of
material bodies. Experiments have been made which should have disclosed
the terms of the first order; the results have been negative; could that
be by chance? No one has assumed that; a general explanation has been
sought, and Lorentz has found it; he has shown that the terms of the
first order must destroy each other, but not those of the second. Then
more precise experiments were made; they also were negative; neither
could this be the effect of chance; an explanation was necessary; it was
found; they always are found; of hypotheses there is never lack.
But this is not enough; who does not feel that this is still to leave to
chance too great a rôle? Would not that also be a chance, this singular
coincidence which brought it about that a certain circumstance should
come just in the nick of time to destroy the terms of the first order,
and that another circumstance, wholly different, but just as opportune,
should take upon itself to destroy those of the second order? No, it is
necessary to find an explanation the same for the one as for the other,
and then everything leads us to think that this explanation will hold
good equally well for the terms of higher order, and that the mutual
destruction of these terms will be rigorous and absolute.
PRESENT STATE OF THE SCIENCE.--In the history of the development of
physics we distinguish two inverse tendencies.
On the one hand, new bonds are continually being discovered between
objects which had seemed destined to remain forever unconnected;
scattered facts cease to be strangers to one another; they tend to
arrange themselves in an imposing synthesis. Science advances toward
unity and simplicity.
On the other hand, observation reveals to us every day new phenomena;
they must long await their place and sometimes, to make one for them, a
corner of the edifice must be demolished. In the known phenomena
themselves, where our crude senses showed us uniformity, we perceive
details from day to day more varied; what we believed simple becomes
complex, and science appears to advance toward variety and complexity.
Of these two inverse tendencies, which seem to triumph turn about, which
will win? If it be the first, science is possible; but nothing proves
this _a priori_, and it may well be feared that after having made vain
efforts to bend nature in spite of herself to our ideal of unity,
submerged by the ever-rising flood of our new riches, we must renounce
classifying them, abandon our ideal, and reduce science to the
registration of innumerable recipes.
To this question we can not reply. All we can do is to observe the
science of to-day and compare it with that of yesterday. From this
examination we may doubtless draw some encouragement.
Half a century ago, hope ran high. The discovery of the conservation of
energy and of its transformations had revealed to us the unity of force.
Thus it showed that the phenomena of heat could be explained by
molecular motions. What was the nature of these motions was not exactly
known, but no one doubted that it soon would be. For light, the task
seemed completely accomplished. In what concerns electricity, things
were less advanced. Electricity had just annexed magnetism. This was a
considerable step toward unity, and a decisive step.
But how should electricity in its turn enter into the general unity, how
should it be reduced to the universal mechanism?
Of that no one had any idea. Yet the possibility of this reduction was
doubted by none, there was faith. Finally, in what concerns the
molecular properties of material bodies, the reduction seemed still
easier, but all the detail remained hazy. In a word, the hopes were vast
and animated, but vague. To-day, what do we see? First of all, a prime
progress, immense progress. The relations of electricity and light are
now known; the three realms, of light, of electricity and of magnetism,
previously separated, form now but one; and this annexation seems final.
This conquest, however, has cost us some sacrifices. The optical
phenomena subordinate themselves as particular cases under the
electrical phenomena; so long as they remained isolated, it was easy to
explain them by motions that were supposed to be known in all their
details, that was a matter of course; but now an explanation, to be
acceptable, must be easily capable of extension to the entire electric
domain. Now that is a matter not without difficulties.
The most satisfactory theory we have is that of Lorentz, which, as we
shall see in the last chapter, explains electric currents by the motions
of little electrified particles; it is unquestionably the one which best
explains the known facts, the one which illuminates the greatest number
of true relations, the one of which most traces will be found in the
final construction. Nevertheless, it still has a serious defect, which I
have indicated above; it is contrary to Newton's law of the equality of
action and reaction; or rather, this principle, in the eyes of Lorentz,
would not be applicable to matter alone; for it to be true, it would be
necessary to take account of the action of the ether on matter and of
the reaction of matter on the ether.
Now, from what we know at present, it seems probable that things do not
happen in this way.
However that may be, thanks to Lorentz, Fizeau's results on the optics
of moving bodies, the laws of normal and anomalous dispersion and of
absorption find themselves linked to one another and to the other
properties of the ether by bonds which beyond any doubt will never more
be broken. See the facility with which the new Zeeman effect has found
its place already and has even aided in classifying Faraday's magnetic
rotation which had defied Maxwell's efforts; this facility abundantly
proves that the theory of Lorentz is not an artificial assemblage
destined to fall asunder. It will probably have to be modified, but not
destroyed.
But Lorentz had no aim beyond that of embracing in one totality all the
optics and electrodynamics of moving bodies; he never pretended to give
a mechanical explanation of them. Larmor goes further; retaining the
theory of Lorentz in essentials, he grafts upon it, so to speak,
MacCullagh's ideas on the direction of the motions of the ether.
According to him, the velocity of the ether would have the same
direction and the same magnitude as the magnetic force. However
ingenious this attempt may be, the defect of the theory of Lorentz
remains and is even aggravated. With Lorentz, we do not know what are
the motions of the ether; thanks to this ignorance, we may suppose them
such that, compensating those of matter, they reestablish the equality
of action and reaction. With Larmor, we know the motions of the ether,
and we can ascertain that the compensation does not take place.
If Larmor has failed, as it seems to me he has, does that mean that a
mechanical explanation is impossible? Far from it: I have said above
that when a phenomenon obeys the two principles of energy and of least
action, it admits of an infinity of mechanical explanations; so it is,
therefore, with the optical and electrical phenomena.
But this is not enough: for a mechanical explanation to be good, it must
be simple; for choosing it among all which are possible, there should be
other reasons besides the necessity of making a choice. Well, we have
not as yet a theory satisfying this condition and consequently good for
something. Must we lament this? That would be to forget what is the goal
sought; this is not mechanism; the true, the sole aim is unity.
We must therefore set bounds to our ambition; let us not try to
formulate a mechanical explanation; let us be content with showing that
we could always find one if we wished to. In this regard we have been
successful; the principle of the conservation of energy has received
only confirmations; a second principle has come to join it, that of
least action, put under the form which is suitable for physics. It also
has always been verified, at least in so far as concerns reversible
phenomena which thus obey the equations of Lagrange, that is to say, the
most general laws of mechanics.
Irreversible phenomena are much more rebellious. Yet these also are
being coordinated, and tend to come into unity; the light which has
illuminated them has come to us from Carnot's principle. Long did
thermodynamics confine itself to the study of the dilatation of bodies
and their changes of state. For some time past it has been growing
bolder and has considerably extended its domain. We owe to it the theory
of the galvanic battery and that of the thermoelectric phenomena; there
is not in all physics a corner that it has not explored, and it has
attacked chemistry itself.
Everywhere the same laws reign; everywhere, under the diversity of
appearances, is found again Carnot's principle; everywhere also is found
that concept so prodigiously abstract of entropy, which is as universal
as that of energy and seems like it to cover a reality. Radiant heat
seemed destined to escape it; but recently we have seen that submit to
the same laws.
In this way fresh analogies are revealed to us, which may often be
followed into detail; ohmic resistance resembles the viscosity of
liquids; hysteresis would resemble rather the friction of solids. In all
cases, friction would appear to be the type which the most various
irreversible phenomena copy, and this kinship is real and profound.
Of these phenomena a mechanical explanation, properly so called, has
also been sought. They hardly lent themselves to it. To find it, it was
necessary to suppose that the irreversibility is only apparent, that the
elementary phenomena are reversible and obey the known laws of dynamics.
But the elements are extremely numerous and blend more and more, so that
to our crude sight all appears to tend toward uniformity, that is,
everything seems to go forward in the same sense without hope of
return. The apparent irreversibility is thus only an effect of the law
of great numbers. But, only a being with infinitely subtile senses, like
Maxwell's imaginary demon, could disentangle this inextricable skein and
turn back the course of the universe.
This conception, which attaches itself to the kinetic theory of gases,
has cost great efforts and has not, on the whole, been fruitful; but it
may become so. This is not the place to examine whether it does not lead
to contradictions and whether it is in conformity with the true nature
of things.
We signalize, however, M. Gouy's original ideas on the Brownian
movement. According to this scientist, this singular motion should
escape Carnot's principle. The particles which it puts in swing would be
smaller than the links of that so compacted skein; they would therefore
be fitted to disentangle them and hence to make the world go backward.
We should almost see Maxwell's demon at work.
To summarize, the previously known phenomena are better and better
classified, but new phenomena come to claim their place; most of these,
like the Zeeman effect, have at once found it.
But we have the cathode rays, the X-rays, those of uranium and of
radium. Herein is a whole world which no one suspected. How many
unexpected guests must be stowed away?
No one can yet foresee the place they will occupy. But I do not believe
they will destroy the general unity; I think they will rather complete
it. On the one hand, in fact, the new radiations seem connected with the
phenomena of luminescence; not only do they excite fluorescence, but
they sometimes take birth in the same conditions as it.
Nor are they without kinship with the causes which produce the electric
spark under the action of the ultra-violet light.
Finally, and above all, it is believed that in all these phenomena are
found true ions, animated, it is true, by velocities incomparably
greater than in the electrolytes.
That is all very vague, but it will all become more precise.
Phosphorescence, the action of light on the spark, these were regions
rather isolated and consequently somewhat neglected by investigators.
One may now hope that a new path will be constructed which will
facilitate their communications with the rest of science.
Not only do we discover new phenomena, but in those we thought we knew,
unforeseen aspects reveal themselves. In the free ether, the laws retain
their majestic simplicity; but matter, properly so called, seems more
and more complex; all that is said of it is never more than approximate,
and at each instant our formulas require new terms.
Nevertheless the frames are not broken; the relations that we have
recognized between objects we thought simple still subsist between these
same objects when we know their complexity, and it is that alone which
is of importance. Our equations become, it is true, more and more
complicated, in order to embrace more closely the complexity of nature;
but nothing is changed in the relations which permit the deducing of
these equations one from another. In a word, the form of these equations
has persisted.
Take, for example, the laws of reflection: Fresnel had established them
by a simple and seductive theory which experiment seemed to confirm.
Since then more precise researches have proved that this verification
was only approximate; they have shown everywhere traces of elliptic
polarization. But, thanks to the help that the first approximation gave
us, we found forthwith the cause of these anomalies, which is the
presence of a transition layer; and Fresnel's theory has subsisted in
its essentials.
But there is a reflection we can not help making: All these relations
would have remained unperceived if one had at first suspected the
complexity of the objects they connect. It has long been said: If Tycho
had had instruments ten times more precise neither Kepler, nor Newton,
nor astronomy would ever have been. It is a misfortune for a science to
be born too late, when the means of observation have become too perfect.
This is to-day the case with physical chemistry; its founders are
embarrassed in their general grasp by third and fourth decimals; happily
they are men of a robust faith.
The better one knows the properties of matter the more one sees
continuity reign. Since the labors of Andrews and of van der Waals, we
get an idea of how the passage is made from the liquid to the gaseous
state and that this passage is not abrupt. Similarly, there is no gap
between the liquid and solid states, and in the proceedings of a recent
congress is to be seen, alongside of a work on the rigidity of liquids,
a memoir on the flow of solids.
By this tendency no doubt simplicity loses; some phenomenon was formerly
represented by several straight lines, now these straights must be
joined by curves more or less complicated. In compensation unity gains
notably. Those cut-off categories quieted the mind, but they did not
satisfy it.
Finally the methods of physics have invaded a new domain, that of
chemistry; physical chemistry is born. It is still very young, but we
already see that it will enable us to connect such phenomena as
electrolysis, osmosis and the motions of ions.
From this rapid exposition, what shall we conclude?
Everything considered, we have approached unity; we have not been as
quick as was hoped fifty years ago, we have not always taken the
predicted way; but, finally, we have gained ever so much ground.