There are events in the history of a people, which are remembered with
difficulty or displeasure and therefore soon drop from the memory of
men. But there are other incidents which pass from father to son
through many generations, and the remembrance of them, though altered
in many particulars and variously recounted, seems to be undying.
Events of this kind are migrations, long warfare or decisive battles,
which resulted either in defeat or victory, alliances with cognate or
friendly tribes, times of abundance, of famines and epidemics. To be
of easy remembrance, there must be something connected with these
events which forcibly strikes the imagination and in later times
stands out as the principal fact, while minor features of its
occurrence disappear or become subject to alterations in the progress
of time.
This also shows the process, how historic legends and traditions are
forming among uncultured nations, which are possessed of imperfect
means only for the transmission of ideas to posterity. Whenever this
traditionary lore is written down by a civilized people, then the
gathering of these tales, half mythic and half historic, forms a
commencement of historiography, and by later generations is regarded
as valued material for clearing up the dawn of history.
The historic legends of the different nations vary exceedingly in
their contents, at least as much as do the nations themselves. There
are some that speak of the chiefs only and not of the people, or fill
the tales with mythic heroes and impossible events, while the more
sober and intelligent restrict the miraculous element to narrow
limits, though never excluding it entirely. There are peoples and
individuals who will not give credence to a legend which does not
contain miracles. Many of the North American tribes, especially on the
Pacific coast, have no knowledge of early events in their tribe,
because a severe law prohibits them from calling their dead relatives
by their names. This superstition alone suffices to destroy the
historic sense in the population, but does not seem to have operated
among the Aztecs, Mayas and Quichhuas to any noticeable degree.
All nations of the globe have migrated from earlier into more recent
seats, but with many of them these migrations took place in epochs so
far distant that they have lost all recollections of them. These
latter we call autochthonic; the Kalapuya of Willámet Valley, Oregon,
and the Washo around Carson, Nevada, who claim to have originated from
bulrushes in the vicinity, belong to these. All tribes of the Maskoki
stock possess migration legends, and so do the Dakota and Iroquois.
Their migration legends are intermingled with myths and mythic ideas;
nevertheless, they prove that the migrations took place in
comparatively recent times, and that these accounts are not pure
astronomical or other fictions.
A full knowledge of Maskoki mythology would certainly help us in the
understanding of their migration tales, but this subject has not been
investigated as yet. Their principal mythic power is the "Master of
Life" or "Holder of Breath," in Creek Isákita immíssi, a divine being,
which is as thoroughly North American as Jahve, an ancient sun- and
thunder-god, is of Semitic, and Dyaus, Zeus, Jupiter, the Sky-god, is
of Aryan origin. The proper sense of the Creek name is "the one who
carries, takes the life or breath for them;" it is the embodiment of
the idea that a great, powerful spirit gives life, or what is
synonymous with it, breath to them (to persons, animals), and takes it
off from them at will (isákita _life, breath_; im-pron. poss. 3d
person, ísäs _I take_, when the object stands in the singular); ísi,
íssi _taker, holder_. The Master of Life, also called Suta-läíkati,
"resident in the sky," is not a pure abstraction, but has to be
brought into connection with the sun-worship of all Americans, which
again became associated with the cult of the fire-flame. The idea that
the Creeks knew anything of the _devil_ of the Christian religion is a
pure invention of the missionaries; being christianized, they call him
now: ísti fútchigō "the man acting perversely," tasoχlä′ya, or: ísti
niklé-idsha atsū′li "the old person-burner" (áni niklé-idshäs _I burn
somebody, something_); the Yuchi call him "the swinging man," just as
they call a ghost "a hunting man." The Shetimasha name for the devil
is néka, which properly means _conjurer, sorcerer_ and _witchcraft_.
In the eyes of the missionaries and Christian settlers, the paramount
importance and abstract character of the Master of Breath made him
appear as the centre of an almost monotheistic religion; but on closer
investigation it will be found that the Creeks believed in many genii
and mythic animals besides, two of which were the isti-pápa and the
snake, which furnished the snake horn as a war-talisman. It would be
singular indeed, if the Creeks were the only Indians of America who
believed solely in the Great Spirit and not also in a number of lesser
conceptions of imagination, as dwarfs, giants, ogres, fairies,
hobgoblins and earth-spirits.
The myths referring to the origin of nations often stand in close
connection with myths accounting for the ages of the world or
successive creations, with migration legends, and with culture-myths,
explaining the origin of certain institutions, manufactures and arts.
Many of these myths are etymological, as that of the Greeks, stating
that they originated from stones thrown by Deucalion behind himself
(λάας _stone_, and λαός _people_); that of Adam, being created from
earth; adam, in Hebrew, signifies _person_ and _mankind_, adom, adum,
fem. adumáh _red, ruddy, bay-colored_, adamáh _earth, ground, land_,
from its reddish color, admoni _red-haired_.
Although the origin from the earth is certainly the most natural that
could suggest itself to primitive man, there are a number of nations
claiming provenience from the sky (the Tukabatchi were let down from
the sky in a gourd or calabash): from the sun (Yuchi), from the moon,
from the sea, from the ashes of fire (Sháwano), from eggs (Quichhua)
or certain plants.
The Aht, on the western coast of Vancouver Island, allege that animals
were first produced at Cape Flattery, Washington Territory, and from
the union of some of these with a star, which fell from heaven, came
the first men, and from them sprang all the race of Nitin-aht,
Klayok-aht and Mákah or Klass-aht Indians.[134]
[Footnote 134: J. G. Swan, the Makah Indians, p. 56, in
Smithsonian Contributions.]
Wherever a mythic origin from an animal, especially from a wild beast,
is claimed for man, it is usually done to explain the totem of the
gens to which the originators of the tale belong.
Among the nations tracing their mythic origin to the earth, or what
amounts to the same thing, to caves, deep holes, hills or mountains,
are the Pomo of Northern California, who believe that their ancestors,
the coyote-men, were created directly from a knoll of red earth,[135]
still visible in their country; the Nahua, whose seven tribes issued
from Chicomoztoc or the "Seven Caves."
[Footnote 135: Stephen Powers, Tribes of California, p. 156.]
A tribe of the Yókat group, the Tinluí in Southern California, claims
that their forefathers issued from badger-burrows, and they derive
their tribal name from these holes, which are extremely frequent
through their country.[136]
[Footnote 136: Communicated by Dr. Walter J. Hoffman. Powers
writes the name: Tin-lin-neh.]
Six families representing the Six Nations of the Iroquois are called
out to the upper world from a cave on the Oswego River by the "Holder
of the Heavens," Tarenyawagon.[137]
[Footnote 137: The myth is given below in full; taken from E.
Johnson, Legends, etc. pp. 43, sqq.]
Traditions on early migrations, which have originated in the people to
which they refer and bear the imprint of genuineness, not that of a
late fabrication by conjurers or mixed-bloods, usually contain
indications of importance which are confirmed by archæologic and
linguistic researches. The tradition of the Hebrews, which tells of
their immigration into Palestine from the countries of the north
across the Euphrates, is substantiated by their tribal name _ibri_
"one who has crossed." The Hellenic, especially Doric tradition of an
immigration from Thrace and Macedonia through Epirus and Thessalia
into Greece is confirmed by linguistic and historic facts, but the
Roman legend concerning the descent of the founders of the "Eternal
City" from Troy was acknowledged to be a pious fraud by the ancients
themselves.
The Indians of the upper and middle part of the peninsula of
California claim descent from the Yuma population north of them; the
Tinné-Apache of New Mexico and the Gila river, Arizona, also point to
an ancient home in the far north, and both traditions are confirmed by
the affinities of their dialects. In many instances, though by no
means in all, the migrations are seen to follow the direction of the
longitudinal axis of the continent. In North America another line of
migration is observed besides, that from west to east; nevertheless,
the Yuchi and some Dakota and Iroquois tribes have moved in a
direction exactly opposite.
It is erroneous to believe that a people had but one migration legend,
because only one has come to our knowledge.[138] This would be a
thorough misapprehension of the various agencies which are at work in
producing folk-lore. Every tribe of a people or nation has its own
migration myth or legend, which in some points coincides, in others
conflicts with those of the neighboring septs. Conflicting traditions
will be noticed below, not only among the Maskoki nations at large,
but also within the narrower limits of the Creek towns or tribes.
[Footnote 138: "Quod non est in scriptis, non est in mundo."]
To the reproduction and critical examination of the different Creek
migration legends transmitted to us we premise a short chapter on the
mythic and legendary tales referring to the migrations of the other
Maskoki nations.
The account of the _Cha'hta_ migration, as given in the Missionary
Herald, of Boston, Vol. XXIV (1828), p. 215, was referred to in a
short extract in this volume, under Cha'hta, pp. 106. 107.
The narrative of the interpreter, who seems to have been somewhat
imbued with the spirit of rationalism, continues as follows:
"When they emigrated from a distant country in the west, the Creeks
were in front, the Cha'hta in the rear. They travelled to a 'good
country' in the east; this was the inducement to go. On the way, they
stopped to plant corn. Their great leader and prophet[139] directed
all their movements, carried the _hobuna_ or sacred bag (containing
'medicines') and a long white pole as the badge of his authority. When
he planted the white pole, it was a signal for their encampment. He
was always careful to set this pole perpendicularly and to suspend
upon it the sacred bag. None were allowed to come near it and no one
but himself might touch it. When the pole inclined towards the east,
this was the signal for them to proceed on their journey; it steadily
inclined east until they reached Nánni Wáya. There they settled."
[Footnote 139: _Prophet_, in Cha'hta, is hopáyi and corresponds
in his name to the ahopáya, hopáya of the Creeks, q. v.]
This story does not mention any crossing by the Cha'hta of the turbid
waters of the mighty Mississippi, but accounts quite satisfactorily
for the mysterious inclination of the pole, for the prophet must have
been careful to suspend the satchel with the war-physic always on the
eastern side, so as to have the pole brought down in that direction by
the weight of the pouch. The tale contains a similar motive as that of
the foundation of the citadel at Thebes by Kadmus, who was ordered by
an oracle to follow a wandering heifer until it would settle in the
grass, and then to found a city on the spot.
Follows the account of the _Chicasa_ migration, as told by their old
men to the United States agent stationed among them, and printed in
Schoolcraft, Indians, I, 309 sq:
"By tradition they say they came from the West; a part of their tribe
remained in the West. When about to start eastward they were provided
with a large dog as a guard and a pole as guide; the dog would give
them notice whenever an enemy was near at hand, and thus enable them
to make their arrangements to receive them. The pole they would plant
in the ground every night, and the next morning they would look at it,
and go in the direction it leaned. They continued their journey in
this way until they crossed the great Mississippi river, and on the
waters of the Alabama river arrived in the country about where
Huntsville, Alabama, now is. There the pole was unsettled for several
days, but finally it settled and pointed in a southwest direction.
They then started on that course, planting the pole every night, until
they arrived at what is called the Chickasaw Old Fields,[140] where
the pole stood perfectly erect. All then came to the conclusion that
that was the Promised Land, and there they accordingly remained until
they emigrated west of the State of Arkansas, in the years 1837 and
1838."
[Footnote 140: The Chicasa Old Fields were, as I am informed by
Mr. C. C. Royce, on the eastern bank of Tennessee river, at the
islands, Lat. 34° 35´ and Long. 86° 31´.]
"While the pole was in an unsettled condition, a part of their tribe
moved on east, and got with the Creek Indians, but so soon as the
majority of the tribe settled at the Old Fields, they sent for the
party that had gone east, who answered that they were very tired, and
would rest where they were awhile. This clan was called Cush-eh-tah.
They have never joined the parent tribe, but they always remained as
friends until they had intercourse with the whites; then they became a
separate nation."
"The great dog was lost in the Mississippi, and they always believed
that the dog had got into a large sink-hole and there remained; the
Chickasaws said they could hear the dog howl just before the evening
came. Whenever any of their warriors get scalps, they give them to the
boys to go and throw them into the sink where the dog was. After
throwing the scalps, the boys would run off in great fright, and if
one should fall in running, the Chickasaws were certain he would be
killed or taken prisoner by their enemies. Some of the half-breeds,
and nearly all of the full-bloods now believe it."
"In traveling from the West to the Promised Land in the East, they
have no recollection of crossing any large watercourse except the
Mississippi river; they had to fight their way through enemies on all
sides, but cannot now remember the names of them. When they left the
West, they were informed that they might look for whites and that they
would come from the East; that they should be on their guard to avoid
them, lest they should bring all manner of vice among them."
The end of this relation looks rather suspicious for its antiquity, or
may be a later addition. The throwing of the scalps into the sink has
to be considered as a sort of sacrifice, although it is difficult to
say which power of nature the dog represented. The howling of the dog
before evening and the direction of the pole seem to indicate the
state of the weather and the moisture of the ground, which could give
origin to fevers. That the passage: "the dog was lost in the
Mississippi," should read: "_the dog was lost in the State of
Mississippi_," is plainly shown by the sentences following the
statement.
The migration legends now current among the Alibamu and the Hitchiti
are but short in form and have been referred to under the respective
headings.