_Norwegian Literature_
The people who emigrated from Norway and settled in Iceland, after
Harald the Fairhaired had subdued the many independent chiefs and
established the monarchy (872), for the most part belonged to the
flower of the nation, and Iceland naturally became the home of the old
Norse literature. Among the oldest poetical works of this literature
is the so-called "Elder Edda," also called Sæmund's Edda, because for
a long time it was believed to be the work of the Icelander Sæmund.
"The Younger Edda," also called Snorre's Edda, because it is supposed
to have been written by Snorre Sturlason (born 1178, died 1241),
contains a synopsis of the old Norse religion and a treatise on the art
of poetry. Fully as important as the numerous poetical works of that
period was the old Norse Saga-literature.[15] The most prominent work in
this field is Snorre Sturlason's "Heimskringla," which gives the sagas
of the kings of Norway from the beginning down to 1177. A continuation
of the "Heimskringla," to which several authors have contributed, among
them Snorre Sturlason's relative, Sturla Thordson, contains the history
of the later kings down to Magnus Law-Mender.
[15] The word saga means a historical tale.
The literary development above referred to ceased almost entirely
toward the end of the fourteenth century, and later, during the union
with Denmark, the Danish language gradually took the place of the old
Norse as a book-language, and the literature became essentially Danish.
Copenhagen, with its court and its university, was the literary and
educational centre, where the young men of Norway went to study, and
authors born in Norway became, to all intents and purposes, Danish
writers. But Norway furnished some valuable contributors to this common
literature. One of the very first names on the records of the Danish
literature, Peder Claussön (1545-1614), is that of a Norwegian, and
the list further includes such illustrious names as Holberg, Tullin,
Wessel, Steffens, etc.
One of the most original writers whom Norway produced and kept at
home during the period of the union with Denmark was the preacher and
poet, Peder Dass (1647-1708). The best known among his secular songs
is "Nordlands Trompet," a beautiful and patriotic description of the
northern part of Norway.
Ludvig Holberg was born in Bergen, Norway, December 3, 1684. His
father, Colonel Holberg, had risen from the ranks and distinguished
himself, in 1660, at Halden. Shortly after his death the property of
the family was destroyed by fire, and at the age of ten years Ludvig
lost his mother. It was now decided to have him educated for the
military service; but he showed a great dislike for military life, and,
at his earnest request, was sent to the Bergen Latin School. In 1702
he entered the University of Copenhagen. Being destitute of means,
he took a position as private tutor. As soon as he had saved a small
sum he went abroad. He was first in Holland, and afterward studied
for a couple of years at Oxford, where he supported himself by giving
instruction in languages and music. Upon his return to Copenhagen he
again took a position as private tutor and had an opportunity to travel
as teacher for a young nobleman. In 1714 he received a stipend from the
king, which enabled him to go abroad for several years, which he spent
principally in France and Italy. In 1718 he became a regular professor
at the Copenhagen University. Among Holberg's many works the following
are the most prominent: "Peder Paars," a great comical heroic poem,
containing sharp attacks on many of the follies of his time; about
thirty comedies in Molière's style, and a large number of historical
works. Holberg, who was ennobled in 1747, died in January 29, 1754, and
was buried in Sorö Church. His influence on the literature and on the
whole intellectual life of Denmark was very great. He is often called
the creator of the Danish literature.
Christian Baumann Tullin (1728-1765), a genuine poetical genius,
who has been called the Father of Danish lyrical verse, was born in
Christiania, and his poetry, which was mainly written in his native
city, breathes a national spirit. From his day, for about thirty
years, Denmark obtained the majority of her poets from Norway. The
manager of the Danish national theatre, in 1771, was a Norwegian, Niels
Krog-Bredal (1733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical dramas in
Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816), a gifted poet,
wrote tragedy in the conventional French taste of the day. It was a
Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (1742-1785), who, by his great parody,
"Kjærlighed uden Strömper" (Love without Stockings), laughed this
taste out of fashion. Among the writers of this period are also Claus
Frimann (1746-1829), Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839), Claus Fasting
(1746-1791), Johan Wibe (1748-1782), Edward Storm (1749-1794), C. H.
Pram (1756-1821), Jonas Rein (1760-1821), and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821),
all of them Norwegians by birth.
Two notable events led to the foundation of an independent Norwegian
literature: the one was the establishment of a Norwegian university at
Christiania in 1811, and the other was the separation of Norway from
Denmark in 1814. At first the independent Norwegian literature appeared
as immature as the conditions surrounding it. The majority of the
writers had received their education in Copenhagen, and were inclined
to follow in the beaten track of the old literature, although trying to
introduce a more national spirit. All were greatly influenced by the
political feeling of the hour. There was a period when all poetry had
for its subject the beauties and strength of Norway and its people, and
"The Rocks of Norway," "The Lion of Norway," etc., sounded everywhere.
Three poets, called the Trefoil, were the prominent writers of this
period. Of these, Conrad Nicolai Schwach (1793-1860) was the least
remarkable. Henrik A. Bjerregaard (1792-1842) was the author of "The
Crowned National Song," and of a lyric drama, "Fjeldeventyret" (The
Adventure in the Mountains). The third member of the Trefoil, Mauritz
Chr. Hansen (1794-1842), wrote a large number of novels and national
stories, which were quite popular in their time. His poems were among
the earliest publications of independent Norway.
The time about the year 1830 is reckoned as the beginning of the new
Norwegian literature, and Henrik Wergeland is called its creator.
Henrik Arnold Wergeland was born in 1808. His father, Nicolai
Wergeland, a clergyman, was a member of the Constitutional Convention
at Eidsvold. Henrik studied theology, but did not care to become
a clergyman. In 1827, and the following years, he wrote a number
of satirical farces under the signature "Siful Sifadda." In 1830
appeared his lyric dramatic poem, "Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias"
(The Creation, Man and Messiah), a voluminous piece of work, in which
he attempted to explain the historical life of the human race. As
a political writer he was editorial assistant on the "Folkebladet"
(1831-1833), and edited the opposition paper "Statsborgeren"
(1835-1837). He worked with great zeal for the education of the
laboring class, and from 1839 until his death edited a paper in the
interest of the laborer. The prominent features of his earliest
efforts in literature are an unbounded enthusiasm and a complete
disregard of the laws of poetry. At an early age he had become a power
in literature, and a political power as well. From 1831 to 1835 he
was subjected to severe satirical attacks by the author Welhaven and
others, and later his style became improved in every respect. His
popularity however decreased as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he had
become a great poet but had no political influence. Among his works may
be named "Hasselnödder," "Jöden" (The Jew), "Jödinden" (The Jewess),
"Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke" (Jan van Huysum's Flower-piece),
"Den engelske Lods" (The English Pilot), and a great number of lyric
poems. The poems of his last five years are as popular to-day as ever.
Wergeland died in 1845.
The enthusiastic nationalism of Henrik Wergeland and his young
following brought on a conflict with the conservative element, which
was not ready to accept everything as good simply because it was
Norwegian. This conservative element maintained that art and culture
must be developed on the basis of the old association with Denmark,
which had connected Norway with the great movement of civilization
throughout Europe. As the poetical leader of this "Intelligence" party,
as it was called, appeared J. S. Welhaven.
Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven was born in Bergen in 1807,
entered the university in 1825, became a "Lector" in 1840, and
afterward Professor of Philosophy. "His refined æsthetic nature," says
Fr. Winkel Horn, "had been early developed, and when the war broke out
between him and Wergeland he had reached a high point of intellectual
culture, and thus was in every way a match for his opponent. The
fight was inaugurated by a preliminary literary skirmish, which was,
at the outset, limited to the university students; but it gradually
assumed an increasingly bitter character, both parties growing more
and more exasperated. Welhaven published a pamphlet, 'Om Henrik
Wergelands Digtekunst og Poesie,' in which he mercilessly exposed the
weak sides of his adversary's poetry. Thereby the minds became still
more excited. The 'Intelligence' party withdrew from the students'
union, founded a paper of their own, and thus the movement began to
assume wider dimensions. In 1834 appeared Welhaven's celebrated poem
'Norges Dæmring,' a series of sonnets, distinguished for their beauty
of style. In them the poet scourges, without mercy, the one-sided,
narrow-minded patriotism of his time, and exposes, in striking and
unmistakable words, the hollowness and shortcomings of the Wergeland
party. Welhaven points out, with emphasis, that he is not only going
to espouse the cause of good taste, which his adversary has outraged,
but that he is also about to discuss problems of general interest. He
urges that a Norwegian culture and literature cannot be created out of
nothing; that to promote their development it is absolutely necessary
to continue the associations which have hitherto been common to both
Norway and Denmark, and thus to keep in _rapport_ with the general
literature of Europe. When a solid foundation has in this manner been
laid, the necessary materials for a literature would surely not be
wanting, for they are found in abundance, both in the antiquities and
in the popular life of Norway." Welhaven continued his effective work
as a poet and a critic. Through a series of lyrical and romantic poems,
rich in contents and highly finished in style, he developed a poetical
life, which had an important influence in the young Norwegian literary
circles. He died in 1873.
Andreas Munch (1811-1884), an able and industrious poetical writer,
took no part in the controversy between Wergeland and Welhaven, but
followed his Danish models independently of either. His "Poems, Old and
New," published in 1848, were quite popular. His best work is probably
"Kongedatterens Brudefart" (The Bridal Tour of the King's Daughter),
1861.
In the period of about a dozen years following the death of Wergeland,
the life, manners and characteristics of the Norwegian people were
given the especial attention of the literary writers. Prominent in this
period was Peter Christian Asbjörnsen (1812-1885), who, partly alone
and partly in conjunction with Bishop Jörgen Moe (1813-1882), published
some valuable collections of Norwegian folk tales and fairy tales.
Moe also published three little volumes of graceful and attractive
poems. Among other writers of this period may be named Hans H. Schultze
("Fra Lofoten og Solör"), N. Östgaard ("En Fjeldbygd"), Harald Meltser
("Smaabilleder af Folkelivet"), M. B. Landstad (hymns), and the
linguist Sophus Bugge.
The efforts to bring out the national life and characteristics of the
people in the literature also led to an attempt to nationalize the
language in which the literature was written. The movement was the
so-called "Maalstræv," and had in view the introduction of a "pure
Norwegian" book-language, based upon the peasant dialects. The most
prominent supporter of this movement was Ivar Aasen (1813-1898),
the author of an excellent dictionary of the Norwegian language. A
prominent poetical representative of this school was Aasmund Olafson
Vinje (1818-1870), while Kristofer Janson (born 1841) has also written
a number of stories and poems in the _Landsmaal_ (country tongue).
A new and grand period in the Norwegian literature commenced about
1857, and the two most conspicuous names in this period--and in the
whole Norwegian literature--are those of Henrik Ibsen and Björnstjerne
Björnson.
Henrik Ibsen was born in Skien in 1828. He has written many beautiful
poems; but his special field is the drama, where he is a master. His
first works were nearly all historical romantic dramas. His first
work, "Catilina," printed in 1850, was scarcely noticed until years
afterward, when he had become famous. In 1856 appeared the romantic
drama, "Gildet paa Solhaug" (The Feast at Solhaug), followed by
"Fru Inger til Oestraat," 1857, and "Hærmændene paa Helgeland" (The
Warriors on Helgeland), 1858. In 1863 he wrote the historical tragedy
"Kongsemnerne" (The Pretenders), in which the author showed his great
literary power. Before this play was published, he had been drawn into
a new channel. In 1862 he began a series of satirical and philosophical
dramas with "Kjærlighedens Komedie" (Love's Comedy), which was
succeeded by two masterpieces of a similar kind, "Brand," in 1866, and
"Peer Gynt," in 1867. These works were written in verse; but in "De
Unges Forbund" (The Young Men's League), 1869, a political satire, he
abandoned verse, and all his subsequent dramas have been written in
prose. In 1873 came "Keiser og Galilæer" (Emperor and Galilean). Since
then he has published a number of social dramas which have attracted
world-wide attention. We mention: "Samfundets Stötter" (The Pillars
of Society), "Et Dukkehjem" (A Doll's House), "Gengangere" (Ghosts),
"En Folkefiende" (An Enemy of the People), "Rosmerholm," "Fruen fra
Havet" (The Lady from the Sea), "Little Eyolf," "Bymester Solnes"
(Masterbuilder Solnes), "John Gabriel Borkman."
Björnstjerne Björnson (born in Österdalen in 1832) is the more popular
of the two giants in the Norwegian literature of to-day. His works are
more national in tone. It has been said that to mention his name is to
raise the Norwegian flag. His first successes were made in the field of
the novel, and the first two, "Synnöve Solbakken" (1857), and "Arne"
(1858), made his name famous. These, and his other peasant stories,
will always retain their popularity. He soon, however, entered the
dramatic field, and has since published a great number of dramas and
novels. "Halte Hulda," 1858; "Mellem Slagene," 1859; "Kong Sverre,"
1861; "Sigurd Slembe," 1862; "Maria Stuart," 1863; "De Nygifte" (The
Newly-married Couple), 1865; "Kongen," 1877; "Leonarda," 1879; "Det ny
System," 1879; "Over Ærne," 1883; "En Fallit," "Det flager," etc., and
many others.
In the field of belles-lettres there is, at the present time, a number
of other talented authors. Jonas Lie (born 1833) has produced a number
of excellent novels. Then there are Alexander Kielland (born 1849),
Magdalene Thoresen (born 1819), Arne Garborg, Gunnar Heiberg, and a
number of young authors.
In the field of science, also, modern Norway has a rich literature
with many prominent names, such as the historians Peter Andreas Munch
(1810-1863), Rudolph Keyser (1803-1864), Johan Ernst Sars (born 1835),
and O. A. Överland.