+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+--------------+--------------+
| | | Average | Quantity | | Average | Average | | | Average | Average |
| | Gross | Number | of Raw | Total | Number | Number | Annual | Daily | Daily | Daily |
| Year | Amount | of | and | Production| of Male |of Female | Working |Working| Wage | Wage of |
| |of Capital| Spindles | Ginned | of Cotton |Operatives|Operatives| Days. | Hours.| of Male | Female |
| | invested.|used daily.| Cotton | Yarn. | daily | daily | | | Operatives. | Operatives. |
| | | | demanded. | | employed.| employed.| | | | |
+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+--------------+--------------+
| |Thousand L| Thousands.|Million lb.|Million lb.| | | | | | |
|1892-1894| 1123 | 420 | 112.9 | 97.9 | 6,916 | 21,695 | 290 | 22 |4d. to 4-1/4d.|2d. to 2-1/4d.|
|1900-1902| 3569 | 1209 | 335.3 | 288.0 | 13,373 | 50,271 | 312 | 19 | 7-1/2d.|4-1/2d. to 5d.|
| 1903 | 3441 | 1290 | 375.5 | 322.7 | 13,160 | 57,166 | 308 | 20 |7-1/2d. to 8d.|4-1/2d. to 5d.|
| 1904 | 3470 | 1306 | 332.1 | 285.9 | 10,967 | 52,115 | 309 | 20 | 8d.| 5d.|
+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+--------------+--------------+
With amazing adaptability the Japanese have assumed the methods of
Western civilization as a whole. But hand-weaving more than holds its
own, and power-weaving has as yet met with little success. The custom
already mentioned as a cause of the continued triumph of the hand-loom
in India and China is strong also in Japan, and the economy of the
factory system is greater relatively in spinning than in
manufacturing. In Japan it is ring-spinning which prevails: 95% of the
spindles are on ring-frames. Ring-spinning entails less skill on the
part of the operative, and ring-yarn is quite satisfactory for the
sort of fabrics used most largely in the Far East. The counts produced
are low as a rule. Generally mills run day and night with double
shifts, and the system seems to pay, though night-work is found to be
less economical than day-work there as elsewhere. More operatives are
placed on a given quantity of machinery in Japan than in
Lancashire--possibly more "labour" as well as more operatives, because
labour as well as operatives may be cheaper. On the same work the
output per spindle per hour is less in Japan than in England, even
when day-shifts only are taken into account. Japanese work has been
severely criticized, but the recency of the introduction of the cotton
industry must not be forgotten.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature relating to the cotton industry is
enormous. The most complete bibliographies will be found in Chapman's
_Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (where short descriptions of the several
works included, which relate only to the United Kingdom, are given);
Hammond's _Cotton Culture and Trade_; and Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_. The
list of books set forth here must be select only.
The development of the English industry can be traced through the
following:--Aikin, _A Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty
Miles round Manchester_ (1795); Andrew, _Fifty Years' Cotton Trade_
(1887); Baines, _History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain_
(1835); Banks, _A Short Sketch of the Cotton Trade of Preston for the
last Sixty-Seven Years_ (1888); Butterworth, _Historical Sketches of
Oldham_ (1847 or 1848); Butterworth, _An Historical Account of the
Towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge and Dukinfield_ (1842);
Chapman, _The Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (1904); Cleland,
_Description of the City of Glasgow_ (1840); _A Complete History of
the Cotton Trade, &c._, by a person concerned in trade (1823);
Ellison, _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain including a History of the
Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton Brokers'
Association_ (1886); Leon Faucher, _Etudes sur Angleterre_ (1845);
French, _The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton_ (1859); Guest, _A
Compendious History of the Cotton-manufacture, with a Disproval of the
Claim of Sir Richard Arkwright to the Invention of its Ingenious
Machinery_ (1823); Guest, _The British Cotton Manufacture and a Reply
to the Article on Spinning Machinery, contained in a recent Number of
the Edinburgh Review_ (1828); Helm, _Chapters in the History of the
Manchester Chamber of Commerce_ (1902); Kennedy, _Miscellaneous Papers
on Subjects connected with the Manufactures of Lancashire_ (1849);
Ogden, _A Description of Manchester ... with a Succinct History of its
former original Manufactories, and their Gradual Advancement to the
Present State of Perfection at which they are arrived, by a Native of
the Town_ (1783); Radcliffe, _Origin of the New System of Manufacture,
commonly called "Power-Loom Weaving" and the Purposes for which this
System was invented and brought into use, fully explained in a
Narrative concerning William Radcliffe's Struggles through Life to
remove the Cause which has brought this Country to its Present Crisis_
(1828); Rees' _Cyclopaedia_, articles on Cotton (1808), Spinning
(1816) and Weaving (1818); Ure, _The Cotton Manufacture of Great
Britain, investigated and illustrated, with an Introductory View of
its Comparative State in Foreign Countries_ (2 vols.); Ure, _The
Philosophy of Manufacture; or An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral
and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of Great Britain_ (1835);
Watts, _Facts of the Cotton Famine_ (1866); Wheeler, _Manchester: its
Political, Social and Commercial History, Ancient and Modern_ (1836).
In addition there are many short papers in the Manchester public
library. Much valuable information may be obtained from parliamentary
papers; a list of relevant ones is printed as an appendix to Chapman's
_Lancashire Cotton Industry_, but it is too lengthy to repeat here.
The most important are the reports relating to the hand-loom weavers,
those on the employment of children in factories (of which a list will
be found in Hutching and Harrison's _History of the Factory
Legislation_), and the state of trade and the annual reports of the
factory inspectors. On labour questions there is a list of authorities
in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ and also of parliamentary
papers containing useful material. Printed copies of the "Wages Lists"
are issued by the trade unions. The Factory Acts are dealt with in
Hutchins and Harrison's _History_, mentioned above, as well as the
literature relating to them; while the handbooks by Redgrave and by
Abraham and Davies are specially useful.
On the industry abroad the following are the fullest
authorities:--Besso, _The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg
and Italy_ (1910) (a report made as a Gartside Scholar of the
University of Manchester); Chapman's _Cotton Industry and Trade_
(1905); Hammond, _The Cotton Industry_; Hasbach's article, "Zur
Characteristik der englischen Industrie," in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_,
vol. ii. (1903); Leconte, _Le Coton_; Lochmuller, _Zur Entwicklung der
Baumwollindustrie in Deutschland_ (1906); Montgomery, _The Cotton
Manufacture of the United States of America contrasted and compared
with that of Great Britain_ (1840); Oppel, _Die Baumwolle_ (1902);
Schulze-Gaevernitz, _Der Grossbetrieb: ein wirtschaftlicher und
socialer Fortschritt: eine Studie auf dem Gebiete der
Baumwollindustrie_ (1892; translated as _The Cotton Trade in England
and on the Continent_); T. M. Young, _American Cotton Industry_
(1902); Uttley, _Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing in the United
States of North America_ (1905; a report of a tour as Gartside scholar
of the university of Manchester); and the Gartside reports on the
cotton industries of France and Germany by Forrester and Dehn
respectively. Information will also be found in Diplomatic and
Consular Reports, and fragments may be gathered from other books such
as G. Drage's _Russian Affairs_, Dyer's _Dai Nippon_, and Huber's
_Deutschland als Industriestaat_. Japan has published since 1901 a
very full financial and economical annual, and the British government
issues annually a good statistical abstract for India. The American
census contains much detailed information, and there are, in addition
to the statistics issued by the Federal government, those of
Massachusetts, the Bureau of Statistics of which has also reported the
results of an investigation into the industry in the Southern states.
Among official matter the semi-official Bombay and Lancashire cotton
spinning inquiry of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce may be
included. The census of production of the United Kingdom must be
mentioned, and the reports of the International Congresses of Cotton
Spinners and Manufacturers. As to labour, see the reports of the
International Textile Congresses.
The periodical literature is of good quality and much of it is filed
in the Patent Office library. We may notice particularly the _Cotton
Factory Times_; _Textile Journal_; _Textile Manufacturer_; _Textile
Mercury_; _Textile Recorder_; _Textile World Record_ (American); _Der
Leipzige Monatsschrift fur Textilindustrie_; and the French _Textile
Journal_. Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ is an annual which relates
chiefly, though not entirely, to raw cotton, as does also _Cotton_,
the periodical of the Manchester Cotton Association. For technical
works we may refer here to the well-known treatises of Brooks, Guest,
Marsden, Nasmith and Walmsley, and to Johannsen's ponderous
two-volumed _Handbuch der Baumwollspinnerei, Rohweissweberei und
Fabrikanlagen_. (S. J. C.)