[1] Kautzsch, _Old Testament Literature_ (1898), p. 130.
[2] So Morier, the English minister to the Persian court, quoted by
Dean Stanley.
[3] See Zimmern, _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Test_.^(3), p. 438.
[4] _Ibid._ p. 396.
[5] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. 198-199; _Amer. Journ. of Sem.
Languages_ (April 1902), p. 158.
[6] So too Zimmern, in Gunkel's _Schopfung und Chaos_, p. 313, note 2.
ESTHONIA (Ger. _Ehstland_ and _Esthland_, Esthonian _Eestimaa_ and
_Meie-maa_, also _Viroma_ and _Rahvama_; Lettish _Iggaun Senna_), a
Baltic province of Russia, stretching along the south coast of the Gulf
of Finland, and having Lake Peipus and Livonia on the S. and the
government of St Petersburg on the E. An archipelago of islands, of
which Dago is the largest, belongs to this government (Oesel belongs to
Livonia). The area is 7818 sq. m., 503 sq. m. of this being insular. The
surface is low, not exceeding 100 ft. in altitude along the coast and
alongside Lake Peipus, while in the interior the average elevation
ranges from 200 to 300 ft., and nowhere exceeds 450 ft. It was entirely
covered with the bottom moraine of the great ice-sheet of the Glacial
Epoch, resting upon Silurian sandstones and limestones. In places sands
and clays overlie the glacial deposits. The principal stream is the
Narova, which issues from Lake Peipus, flows along the eastern border,
and empties into the Gulf of Finland. The other drainage arteries are
all small, but many in number; while lakes and marshes aggregate fully
22-1/2% of the total surface. The climate is severe, great cold being
experienced in winter, though moist west winds exercise a moderating
influence. Nevertheless the annual mean temperature ranges between 39
deg. and 43 deg. Fahr. In 1878 the nobility, mostly of German descent,
owned and farmed 52% of the land; 42% was farmed, but not owned, by the
peasants, mostly Esths or Ehsts, and only 3% was owned by persons
outside the ranks of the nobility. Since then one-fourth of the
peasantry have been enabled to purchase their holdings, more than half a
million acres having passed into their possession. Agriculture is the
chief occupation, and it is, on all the larger holdings, carried on with
greater scientific knowledge than in any other part of Russia. Of the
total area about 16.6% is under cultivation; meadows and grass-lands
amount to 41.7%; and forests cover 19%. The principal crops are rye,
oats, barley and potatoes, with large quantities of vegetables.
Cattle-breeding flourishes, and meat and butter are constantly
increasing items of export. The manufactories consist chiefly of
distilleries (over 13,500,000 gallons annually), cotton (at Kranholm
falls on the Narova), woollen, flour, paper and saw mills, iron and
machinery works, and match factories. Fishing is active along the coast,
especially for anchovies. The province is intersected by a railway
running from St Petersburg to Reval, with branches from the latter city
westwards to Baltic Port and southwards into Livonia, and from Taps
south to Yuryev (Dorpat). The chief seaports are Reval, Baltic Port,
Hapsal, Kunda and Dago. Esthonia is divided into four districts, the
chief towns of which are Reval (pop. in 1897, 66,292), the capital of
the province; Hapsal, a lively watering-place (3238); Weissenstein
(2509); and Wesenberg (5560). The population, which consists chiefly of
Ehstes (365,959 in 1897), Russians (18,000), Germans (16,000), Swedes
(5800), and some Jews, is growing fairly fast: in 1870 it numbered
323,960, and in 1897 413,747, of whom 210,199 were women and 76,315
lived in towns; in 1906 it was estimated at 451,700. Ninety-six per
cent. of the whole belong to the Lutheran Church. Education is, for
Russia, relatively high.
The Esths, Ehsts or Esthonians, who call themselves Tallopoeg and
Maamees, are known to the Russians as Chukhni or Chukhontsi, to the
Letts as Iggauni, and to the Finns as Virolaiset. They belong to the
Finnish family, and consequently to the Ural-Altaic division of the
human race. Altogether they number close upon one million, and are thus
distributed: 365,959 in Esthonia (in 1897), 518,594 in Livonia, 64,116
in the government of St Petersburg, 25,458 in that of Pskov, and 12,855
in other parts of Russia. As a race they exhibit manifest evidences of
their Ural-Altaic or Mongolic descent in their short stature, absence of
beard, oblique eyes, broad face, low forehead and small mouth. In
addition to that they are an under-sized, ill-thriven people, with long
arms and thin, short legs. They cling tenaciously to their native
language, which is closely allied to the Finnish, and divisible into
two, or according to some authorities into three, principal
dialects--Dorpat Esthonian and Reval Esthonian, with Pernau Esthonian.
Reval Esthonian, which preserves more carefully the full inflectional
forms and pays greater attention to the laws of euphony, is recognized
as the literary language. Since 1873 the cultivation of their
mother-tongue has been sedulously promoted by an Esthonian Literary
Society (_Eesti Korjameeste Selts_), which publishes _Toimetused_, or
"Instructions" in all sorts of subjects. They have a decided love of
poetry, and exhibit great facility in improvising verses and poems on
all occasions, and they sing, everywhere, from morning to night. Like
the Finns they possess rich stores of national songs. These, which bear
an unmistakable family likeness to those of the great Finnish epic of
the _Kalevala_, were collected as the Kalevi Poeg, and edited by
Kreutswald (1857), and translated into German by Reinthal (1857-1859)
and Bertram (1861) and by Lowe (1900). Other collections of _Esthnische
Volkslieder_ have been published by Neuss (1850-1852) and Kreutzwald and
Neuss (1854); while Kreutzwald (1866) and Jannsen (1888) have published
collections of legends and national tales. The earliest publication in
Esthonian was a Lutheran catechism in the 16th century. An Esthonian
translation of the New Testament was printed at Reval in 1715. Between
1813 and 1832 there appeared at Pernau twenty volumes of _Beitrage zur
genauern Kenntniss der esthnischen Sprache_, by Rosenplanter, and from
1840 onwards many valuable papers on Esthonian subjects were contributed
to the _Verhandlungen der gelehrten esthnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_.
F.J. Wiedemann, who laboured indefatigably in the registration and
preservation of matters connected with Esthonian language and lore,
published an _Esthnisch-deutsches Worterbuch_ (1865; 2nd ed. by Hurt,
1891, &c.), and in 1903 there appeared at Reval a _Deutsch-esthnisches
Worterbuch_, by Ploompun and Kann.
The Esthonians first appear in history as a warlike and predatory race,
the terror of the Baltic seamen in consequence of their piracies. More
than one of the Danish kings made serious attempts to subdue them.
Canute VI. invaded their country (1194-1196) and forced baptism upon
many of them, but no sooner did his war-ships disappear than they
reverted to their former heathenism. In 1219 Waldemar II. undertook a
more formidable crusade against them, in the course of which he founded
the town and episcopal see of Reval. By his efforts the northern portion
of the race were made submissive to the Danish crown; but, though
conquered, they were by no means subdued, and were incessantly in
revolt, until, after a great rebellion in 1343, Waldemar IV. Atterdag
sold for 19,000 marks his portion of Esthonia in 1346, to the order of
the Knights of the Sword. These German crusaders had already, after a
quarter of a century's fighting, in 1224 gained possession of the
regions inhabited by the southern portion of the race, that is those now
included in Livonia. From that time for nearly six hundred years or more
the Esthonians were practically reduced to a state of serfdom to the
German landowners. In 1521 the nobles and cities of Esthonia voluntarily
placed themselves under the protection of the crown of Sweden; but after
the wars of Charles XII., Esthonia was formally ceded to his victorious
rival, Peter the Great, by the peace of Nystad (1721). Serfdom was
abolished in 1817 by Tsar Alexander I.; but the condition of the
peasants was so little improved that they rose in open revolt in 1859.
Since 1878, however, a vast change for the better has been effected in
their economic position (see above). The determining feature of their
recent history has been the attempt made by the Russian government
(since 1881) and the Orthodox Greek Church (since 1883) to russify and
convert the inhabitants of the province, Germans and Esths alike, by
enforcing the use of Russian in the schools and by harsh and repressive
measures aimed at their native language.
See Merkel, _Die freien Letten und Esthen_ (1820); Parrot, _Versuch
einer Entwickelung der Sprache, Abstammung, &c., der Liwen, Latten,
Eesten_ (1839); F. Kruse, _Urgeschichte des esthnischen Volksstammes_
(1846); Wiedemann, _Grammatik der esthnischen Sprache_ (1875), and
_Aus dem innern und aussern Leben der Esthen_ (1876); Koppen, _Die
Bewohner Esthlands_ (1847); F. Muller, _Beitrage zur Orographie und
Hydrographie von Esthland_ (1869-1871); Bunge, _Das Herzogthum
Esthland unter den Konigen von Danemark_ (1877); and Seraphim,
_Geschichte Liv-, Est-, und Kurlands_ (2nd ed., 1897) and various
papers in the _Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen_.
(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.; C. El.)
ESTIENNE (or ETIENNE; the French form of the name; anglicized to
Stephens, and latinized to Stephanus), a French family of scholars and
printers.
The founder of the race was HENRI ESTIENNE (d. 1520), the scion of a
noble family of Provence, who came to Paris in 1502, and soon afterwards
set up a printing establishment at the top of the rue Saint-Jean de
Beauvais, on the hill of Saint-Genevieve opposite the law school. He
died in 1520, and, his three sons being minors, the business was
carried on by his foreman Simon de Colines, who in 1521 married his
widow.
ROBERT ESTIENNE (1503-1559) was Henri's second son. After his father's
death he acted as assistant to his stepfather, and in this capacity
superintended the printing of a Latin edition of the New Testament in
16mo (1523). Some slight alterations which he had introduced into the
text brought upon him the censures of the faculty of theology. It was
the first of a long series of disputes between him and that body. It
appears that he had intimate relations with the new Evangelical
preachers almost from the beginning of the movement, and that soon after
this time he definitely joined the Reformed Church. In 1526 he entered
into possession of his father's printing establishment, and adopted as
his device the celebrated olive-tree (a reminiscence doubtless of his
grandmother's family of Montolivet), with the motto from the epistle to
the Romans (xi. 20), _Noli altum sapere_, sometimes with the addition
_sed time_. In 1528 he married Perrette, a daughter of the scholar and
printer Josse Bade (Jodocus Badius), and in the same year he published
his first Latin Bible, an edition in folio, upon which he had been at
work for the last four years. In 1532 appeared his _Thesaurus linguae
Latinae_, a dictionary of Latin words and phrases, upon which for two
years he had toiled incessantly, with no other assistance than that of
Thierry of Beauvais. A second edition, greatly enlarged and improved,
appeared in 1536, and a third, still further improved, in 3 vols. folio,
in 1543. Though the _Thesaurus_ is now superseded, its merits must not
be forgotten. It was vastly superior to anything of the kind that had
appeared before; it formed the basis of future labours, and even as late
as 1734 was considered worthy of being re-edited. In 1539 Robert was
appointed king's printer for Hebrew and Latin, an office to which, after
the death of Conrad Neobar in 1540, he united that of king's printer for
Greek. In 1541 he was entrusted by Francis I. with the task of procuring
from Claude Garamond, the engraver and type-founder, three sets of Greek
type for the royal press. The middle size were the first ready, and with
these Robert printed the _editio princeps_ of the _Ecclesiasticae
Historiae_ of Eusebius and others (1544). The smallest size were first
used for the 16mo edition of the New Testament known as the _O
mirificam_ (1546), while with the largest size was printed the
magnificent folio of 1550. This edition involved the printer in fresh
disputes with the faculty of theology, and towards the end of the
following year he left his native town for ever, and took refuge at
Geneva, where he published in 1552 a caustic and effective answer to his
persecutors under the title _Ad censuras theologorum Parisiensium,
quibus Biblia a R. Stephano, Typographo Regio, ex usa calumniose
notarunt, eiusdem R. S. responsio_. A French translation, which is
remarkable for the excellence of its style, was published by him in the
same year (printed in Renouard's _Annales de l'imprimerie des
Estienne_). At Geneva Robert proved himself an ardent partisan of
Calvin, several of whose works he published. He died there on the 7th of
September 1559.
It is by his work in connexion with the Bible, and especially as an
editor of the New Testament, that he is on the whole best known. The
text of his New Testament of 1550, either in its original form or in
such slightly modified form as it assumed in the Elzevir text of 1634,
remains to this day the traditional text. But this is due rather to
its typographical beauty than to any critical merit. The readings of
the fifteen MSS. which Robert's son Henri had collated for the purpose
were merely introduced into the margin. The text was still almost
exactly that of Erasmus. It was, however, the first edition ever
published with a critical apparatus of any sort. Of the whole Bible
Robert printed eleven editions--eight in Latin, two in Hebrew and one
in French; while of the New Testament alone he printed twelve--five in
Greek, five in Latin and two in French. In the Greek New Testament of
1551 (printed at Geneva) the present division into verses was
introduced for the first time. The _editiones principes_ which issued
from Robert's press were eight in number, viz. _Eusebius_, including
the _Praeparatio evangelica_ and the _Demonstratio evangelica_ as well
as the _Historia ecclesiastica_ already mentioned (1544-1546),
_Moschopulus_ (1545), _Dionysius of Halicarnassus_ (February 1547),
_Alexander Trallianus_ (January 1548), _Dio Cassius_ (January 1548),
_Justin Martyr_ (1551), _Xiphilinus_ (1551), _Appian_ (1551), the last
being completed, after Robert's departure from Paris, by his brother
Charles, and appearing under his name. These editions, all in folio,
except the _Moschopulus_, which is in 4to, are unrivalled for beauty.
Robert also printed numerous editions of Latin classics, of which
perhaps the folio _Virgil_ of 1532 is the most noteworthy, and a large
quantity of Latin grammars and other educational works, many of which
were written by Maturin Cordier, his friend and co-worker in the cause
of humanism.
CHARLES ESTIENNE (1504 or 1505-1564), the third son of Henri, was, like
his brother Robert, a man of considerable learning. After the usual
humanistic training he studied medicine, and took his doctor's degree at
Paris. He was for a time tutor to Jean Antoine de Baif, the future poet.
In 1551, when Robert Estienne left Paris for Geneva, Charles, who had
remained a Catholic, took charge of his printing establishment, and in
the same year was appointed king's printer. In 1561 he became bankrupt,
and he is said to have died in a debtors' prison.
His principal works are _Praedium Rusticum_ (1554), a collection of
tracts which he had compiled from ancient writers on various branches
of agriculture, and which continued to be a favourite book down to the
end of the 17th century; _Dictionarium historicum ac poeticum_ (1553),
the first French encyclopaedia; _Thesaurus Ciceronianus_ (1557), and
_De dissectione partium corporis humani libri tres_, with well-drawn
woodcuts (1548). He also published a translation of an Italian comedy,
_Gli Ingannati_, under the title of _Le Sacrifice_ (1543; republished
as _Les Abusez_, 1549), which had some influence on the development of
French comedy; and _Paradoxes_ (1553), an imitation of the _Paradossi_
of Ortensio Landi.
HENRI ESTIENNE (1531-1598), sometimes called Henri II., was the eldest
son of Robert. In the preface to his edition of Aulus Gellius (1585),
addressed to his son Paul, he gives an interesting account of his
father's household, in which, owing to the various nationalities of
those who were employed on the press, Latin was used as a common
language. Henri thus picked up Latin as a child, but by his own request
he was allowed to learn Greek as a serious study before Latin. At the
age of fifteen he become a pupil of Pierre Danes, at that time the first
Greek scholar in France. Two years later he began to attend the lectures
of Jacques Toussain, one of the royal professors of Greek, and in the
same year (1545) was employed by his father to collate a MS. of
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In 1547 he went to Italy, where he spent
three years in hunting for and collating MSS. and in intercourse with
learned men. In 1550 he visited England, where he was favourably
received by Edward VI., and then Flanders, where he learnt Spanish. In
1551 he joined his father at Geneva, which henceforth became his home.
In 1554 he gave to the world, as the first fruits of his researches, two
first editions, viz. a tract of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the
so-called "Anacreon." In 1556 he discovered at Rome ten new books
(xi.-xx.) of Diodorus Siculus. In 1557 he issued from the press which in
the previous year he had set up at Geneva three first editions, viz.
_Athenagoras, Maximus Tyrius_, and some fragments of Greek historians,
including Appian's [Greek: Annibalike], and [Greek: Iberike] and an
edition of Aeschylus, in which for the first time the _Agamemnon_ was
printed in entirety and as a separate play. In 1559 he printed a Latin
translation from his own pen of Sextus Empiricus, and an edition of
Diodorus Siculus with the new books. His father dying in the same year,
he became under his will owner of his press, subject, however, to the
condition of keeping it at Geneva. In 1566 he published his best-known
French work, the _Apologie pour Herodote_, or, as he himself called it,
_L'Introduction au traite de la conformite des merveilles anciennes avec
les modernes ou Traite preparatif a l'Apologie pour Herodote_. Some
passages being considered objectionable by the Geneva consistory, he was
compelled to cancel the pages containing them. The book became highly
popular, and within sixteen years twelve editions were printed. In 1572
he published the great work upon which he had been labouring for many
years, the _Thesaurus Graecae linguae_, in 5 vols. fol. The publication
in 1578 of his _Deux Dialogues du nouveau francois ilalianize_ brought
him into a fresh dispute with the consistory. To avoid their censure he
went to Paris, and resided at the French court for a year. On his return
to Geneva he was summoned before the consistory, and, proving
contumacious, was imprisoned for a week. From this time his life became
more and more of a nomad one. He is to be found at Basel, Heidelberg,
Vienna, Pest, everywhere but at Geneva, these journeys being undertaken
partly in the hope of procuring patrons and purchasers, for the large
sums which he had spent on such publications as the _Thesaurus_ and the
_Plato_ of 1578 had almost ruined him. His press stood nearly at a
standstill. A few editions of classical authors were brought out, but
each successive one showed a falling off. Such value as the later ones
had was chiefly due to the notes furnished by Casaubon, who in 1586 had
married his daughter Florence. His last years were marked by
ever-increasing infirmity of mind and temper. In 1597 he left Geneva for
the last time. After visiting Montpellier, where Casaubon was now
professor, he started for Paris, but was seized with sudden illness at
Lyons, and died there at the end of January 1598.
Few men have ever served the cause of learning more devotedly. For
over thirty years the amount which he produced, whether as printer,
editor or original writer, was enormous. The productions of his press,
though printed with the same beautiful type as his father's books,
are, owing to the poorness of the paper and ink, inferior to them in
general beauty. The best, perhaps, from a typographical point of view,
are the _Poetae Graeci principes_ (folio, 1566), the _Plutarch_ (13
vols. 8vo, 1572), and the _Plato_ (3 vols. folio, 1578). It was rather
his scholarship which gave value to his editions. He was not only his
own press-corrector but his own editor. Though by the latter half of
the 16th century nearly all the important Greek and Latin authors that
we now possess had been published, his untiring activity still found
some gleanings. Eighteen first editions of Greek authors and one of a
Latin author are due to his press. The most important have been
already mentioned. Henri's reputation as a scholar and editor has
increased of late years. His familiarity with the Greek language has
always been admitted to have been quite exceptional; but he has been
accused of want of taste and judgment, of carelessness and rashness.
Special censure has been passed on his _Plutarch_, in which he is said
to have introduced conjectures of his own into the text, while
pretending to have derived them from MS. authority. But a late editor,
Sintenis, has shown that, though like all the other editors of his day
he did not give references to his authorities, every one of his
supposed conjectures can be traced to some MS. Whatever may be said as
to his taste or his judgment, it seems that he was both careful and
scrupulous, and that he only resorted to conjecture when authority
failed him. And, whatever the merit of his conjectures, he was at any
rate the first to show what conjecture could do towards restoring a
hopelessly corrupt passage. The work, however, on which his fame as a
scholar is most surely based is the _Thesaurus Graecae linguae_. After
making due allowance for the fact that considerable materials for the
work had been already collected by his father, and that he received
considerable assistance from the German scholar Sylburg, he is still
entitled to the very highest praise as the producer of a work which
was of the greatest service to scholarship and which in those early
days of Greek learning could have been produced by no one but a giant.
Two editions of the _Thesaurus_ were published in the 19th century--at
London by Valpy (1815-1825) and at Paris by Didot (1831-1863).
It was one of Henri Estienne's great merits that, unlike nearly all
the French scholars who preceded him, he did not neglect his own
language. In the _Traite de la conformite du langage francois avec le
Grec_ (published in 1565, but without date; ed. L. Feugere, 1850),
French is asserted to have, among modern languages, the most affinity
with Greek, the first of all languages. _Deux Dialogues du nouveau
francois italianize_ (Geneva, 1578; ed. P. Ristelhuber, 2 vols., 1885)
was directed against the fashion prevailing in the court of Catherine
de' Medici of using Italian words and forms. The _Project du livre
intitule de la Precellence du langage francois_ (Paris, 1579; ed. E.
Huguet, 1896) treats of the superiority of French to Italian. An
interesting feature of the _Precellence_ is the account of French
proverbs, and, Henry III. having expressed some doubts as to the
genuineness of some of them, Henri Estienne published, in 1594, _Les
Premices ou le I. livre des Proverbes epigrammatizez_ (never reprinted
and very rare).
Finally, there remains the _Apologie pour Herodote_, his most famous
work. The ostensible object of the book is to show that the strange
stories in Herodotus may be paralleled by equally strange ones of
modern times. Virtually it is a bitter satire on the writer's age,
especially on the Roman Church. Put together without any method, its
extreme desultoriness makes it difficult to read continuously, but the
numerous stories, collected partly from various literary sources,
notably from the preachers Menot and Maillard, partly from the
writer's own multifarious experience, with which it is packed, make it
an interesting commentary on the manners and fashions of the time. But
satire, to be effective, should be either humorous or righteously
indignant, and, while such humour as there is in the _Apologie_ is
decidedly heavy, the writer's indignation is generally forgotten in
his evident relish for scandal. The style is, after all, its chief
merit. Though it bears evident traces of hurry, it is, like that of
all Henri Estienne's French writings, clear, easy and vigorous,
uniting the directness and sensuousness of the older writers with a
suppleness and logical precision which at this time were almost new
elements in French prose. An edition of the _Apologie_ has recently
been published by Liseux (ed. Ristelhuber, 2 vols., 1879), after one
of the only two copies of the original uncancelled edition that are
known to exist. The very remarkable political pamphlet entitled
_Discours merveilleux de la vie et actions et deportemens de Catherine
de Medicis_, which appeared in 1574, has been ascribed to Henri
Estienne, but the evidence both internal and external is conclusive
against his being the author of it. Of his Latin writings the most
worthy of notice are the _De Latinitate falso suspecta_ (1576), the
_Pseudo-Cicero_ (1577) and the _Nizoliodidascalus_ (1578), all three
written against the Ciceronians, and the _Francofordiense Emporium_
(1574), a panegyric on the Frankfort fair (reprinted with a French
translation by Liseux, 1875). He also wrote a large quantity of
indifferent Latin verses, including a long poem entitled _Musa
monitrix Principum_ (Basel, 1590).
The primary authorities for an account of the Estiennes are their own
works. In the garrulous and egotistical prefaces which Henri was in
the habit of prefixing to his editions will be found many scattered
biographical details. Twenty-seven letters from Henri to John Crato of
Crafftheim (ed. F. Passow, 1830) have been printed, and there is one
of Robert's in Herminjard's _Correspondence des Reformateurs dans de
pays de langue francaise_ (9 vols. published 1866-1897), while a few
other contemporary references to him will be found in the same work.
The secondary authorities are Janssen van Almeloveen, _De vitis
Stephanorum_ (Amsterdam, 1683); Maittaire, _Stephanorum historia_
(London, 1709); A.A. Renouard, _Annales de l'imprimerie des Estienne_
(2nd ed., Paris, 1843); the article on Estienne by A.F. Didot in the
_Nouv. Biog. gen._; Mark Pattison, _Essays_, i. 67 ff. (1889); L.
Clement, _Henri Estienne et son oeuvre francaise_ (Paris, 1899). There
is a good account of Henri's _Thesaurus_ in the _Quart. Rev._ for
January 1820, written by Bishop Bromfield. (A. A. T.)
ESTON, an urban district in the Cleveland parliamentary division of the
North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4 m. S.E. of Middlesbrough, on a
branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 11,199. This is one of
the principal centres from which the great ironstone deposits of the
Cleveland Hills are worked, and there are extensive blast-furnaces,
iron-foundries and steam sawing-mills in the district. Immediately W. of
Eston lies the urban district of Ormesby (pop. 9482), and the whole
district is densely populated (see MIDDLESBROUGH). Marton, west of
Ormesby, was the birthplace of Captain Cook (1728). Numerous early
earthworks fringe the hills to the south.
ESTOPPEL (from O. Fr. _estopper_, to stop, bar; _estoupe_, mod.
_etoupe_, a plug of tow; Lat. _stuppa_), a rule in the law of evidence
by which a party in litigation is prohibited from asserting or denying
something, when such assertion or denial would be inconsistent with his
own previous statements or conduct. Estoppel is said to arise in three
ways--(1) by record or judgment, (2) by deed, and (3) by matter _in
pais_ or conduct. (1) Where a cause of action has been tried and final
judgment has been pronounced, the judgment is conclusive--either party
attempting to renew the litigation by a new action would be estopped by
the judgment. "Every judgment is conclusive proof as against parties and
privies, of facts directly in issue in the case, actually decided by the
court, and appearing from the judgment itself to be the ground on which
it was based."--Stephen's _Digest of the Law of Evidence_, Art. 41. (2)
It is one of the privileges of _deeds_ as distinguished from simple
contracts that they operate by way of estoppel. "A man shall always be
estopped by his own deed, or not permitted to aver or prove anything in
contradiction to what he has once so solemnly and deliberately avowed"
(Blackstone, 2 _Com._ 295); e.g. where a bond recited that the
defendants were authorized by acts of parliament to borrow money, and
that under such authority they had borrowed money from a certain person,
they were estopped from setting up as a defence that they did not in
fact so borrow money, as stated by their deed. (3) Estoppel by conduct,
or, as it is still sometimes called, estoppel by matter _in pais_, is
the most important head. The rule practically comes to this that, when a
person in his dealings with others has acted so as to induce them to
believe a thing to be true and to act on such belief, he may not in any
proceeding between himself and them deny the thing to be true: e.g. a
partner retiring from a firm without giving notice to the customers,
cannot, as against a customer having no knowledge of his retirement,
deny that he is a partner. As between landlord and tenant the principle
operates to prevent the denial by the tenant of the landlord's title. So
if a person comes upon land by the licence of the person in possession,
he cannot deny that the licenser had a title to the possession at the
time the licence was given. Again, if a man accepts a bill of exchange
he may not deny the signature or the capacity of the drawer. So a person
receiving goods as baillee from another cannot deny the title of that
other to the goods at the time they were entrusted to him.
Estoppel of whatever kind is subject to one general rule, that it cannot
override the law of the land; for example, a corporation would not be
estopped as to acts which are _ultra vires_.
See L.F. Everest and E. Strode, _The Law of Estoppel_; M. Cababe,
_Principles of Estoppel_.
ESTOUTEVILLE, GUILLAUME D' (1403-1483), French ecclesiastic, was bishop
of Angers, of Digne, of Porto and Santa Rufina, of Ostia and Velletri,
archbishop of Rouen, prior of Saint Martin des Champs, abbot of Mont St
Michel, of St Ouen at Rouen, and of Montebourg. He was sent to France as
legate by Pope Nicholas V. to make peace between Charles VII. and
England (1451), and undertook, _ex officio_, the revision of the trial
of Joan of Arc; he afterwards reformed the statutes of the university of
Paris. He then went to preside over the assembly of clergy which met at
Bourges to discuss the observation of the Pragmatic Sanction (see BASEL,
COUNCIL OF), finally returning to Rome, where he passed almost all the
rest of his life. He was a great builder, Rouen, Mont St Michel,
Pontoise and Gaillon owing many noble buildings to his initiative.
ESTOVERS (from the O. Fr. _estover_, _estovoir_, a verb used as a
substantive in the sense of that which is necessary; the word is of
disputed origin; it has been referred to the Lat. _stare_, to stand, or
_studere_, to desire), a term, in English law, for the wood which a
tenant for life or years may take from the land he holds for repair of
his house, the implements of husbandry, and the hedges and fences, and
for firewood. The O. Eng. word for estover was _bote_ or _boot_
(literally meaning "good," "profit," the same word as seen in "better").
The various kinds of estovers were thus known as house-bote, cart or
plough-bote, hedge or hay-bote, and fire-bote respectively. These rights
may, of course, be restricted by express covenants. Copyholders have
similar rights over the land they occupy and over the waste of the
manor, in which case the rights are known as "Commons of estovers." (See
COMMONS.)
ESTRADA, LA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of
Pontevedra, 15 m. S. by E. of Santiago de Compostela. Pop. (1900)
23,916. La Estrada is the chief town of a densely-populated mountainous
district; its industries are agriculture, stock-breeding, and the
manufacture of linen and woollen cloth. Timber from the mountain forests
is conveyed from La Estrada to the river Ulla, 4 m. N., and thence
floated down to the seaports on Arosa Bay. The nearest railway-station
is Requeijo, 7 m. W., on the Pontevedra-Santiago railway. There are
mineral springs at La Estrada and at Caldas de Reyes, 11 m. W.S.W.
ESTRADE, a French architectural term for a raised platform (see DAIS).
In the Levant the estrade of a divan is called Sopha (Blondel), from
which comes our "sofa."
ESTRADES, GODEFROI, COMTE D' (1607-1686), French diplomatist and
marshal, was born at Agen. He was the son of Francois d'Estrades (d.
1653), a partisan of Henry IV., and brother of Jean d'Estrades, bishop
of Condom. He became a page to Louis XIII., and at the age of nineteen
was sent on a mission to Maurice of Holland. In 1646 he was named
ambassador extraordinary to Holland, and took part in the conferences at
Munster. Sent in 1661 to England, he obtained in 1662 the restitution of
Dunkirk. In 1667 he negotiated the treaty of Breda with the king of
Denmark, and in 1678 the treaty of Nijmwegen, which ended the war with
Holland. Independently of these diplomatic missions, he took part in the
principal campaigns of Louis XIV., in Italy (1648), in Catalonia (1655),
in Holland (1672); and was created marshal of France in 1675. He left
_Lettres, memoires et negociations en qualite d'ambassadeur en Hollande
depuis 1663 jusqu' en 1668_, of which the first edition in 1700 was
followed by a nine-volume edition (London (the Hague), 1743).
Of the sons of Godefroi d'Estrades, Jean Francois d'Estrades was
ambassador to Venice and Piedmont; Louis, marquis d'Estrades (d. 1711),
succeeded his father as governor of Dunkirk, and was the father of
Godefroi Louis, comte d'Estrades, lieutenant-general, who was killed at
the siege of Belgrade, 1717.
See Felix Salomon, _Frankreichs Beziehungen zu dem Scottischen
Aufstand_ (1637-1640), containing an excursus on the falsification of
the letters of the comte d'Estrades; Philippe Lauzun, _Le Marechal
d'Estrades_ (Agen, 1896).
ESTREAT (O. Fr. _estrait_, Lat. _extracta_), originally, a true copy or
duplicate of some original writing or record; now used only with
reference to the enforcement of a forfeited recognizance. At one time it
was the practice to extract and certify into the exchequer copies of
entries in court roils which contained provisions or orders in favour of
the treasury, hence the estreating of a recognizance was the taking out
from among the other records of the court in which it was filed and
sending it to the exchequer to be enforced, or sending it to the sheriff
to be levied by him, and then returned by the clerk of the peace to the
lords of the treasury. (See RECOGNIZANCE.)
ESTREES, GABRIELLE D' (1573-1599), mistress of Henry IV. of France, was
the daughter of Antoine d'Estrees, marquis of Coeuvres, and Francoise
Babou de la Bourdaisiere. Henry IV., who in November 1590 stayed at the
castle of Coeuvres, became violently enamoured of her. Her father,
anxious to save his daughter from so perilous an entanglement, married
her to Nicholas d'Amerval, seigneur de Liancourt, but the union proved
unhappy, and in December 1592, Gabrielle, whose affection for the king
was sincere, became his mistress. She lived with him from December 1592
onwards, and bore him several children, who were recognized and
legitimized by him. She possessed the king's entire confidence; he
willingly listened to her advice, and created her marchioness of
Monceaux, duchess of Beaufort (1597) and Etampes (1598), a peeress of
France. The king even proposed to marry her in the event of the success
of his suit for the nullification by the Holy See of his marriage with
Margaret of Valois; but before the question was settled Gabrielle died,
on the 10th of April 1599. Poison was of course suspected; but her death
was really caused by puerperal convulsions (_eclampsia_).
See Adrien Desclozeaux, _Gabrielle d'Estrees, Marquise de Monceaux,
&c_. (Paris, 1889).
ESTREMADURA, or EXTREMADURA, an ancient territorial division of central
and western Portugal, and of western Spain; comprising the modern
districts of Leiria, Santarem and Lisbon, in Portugal, and the modern
provinces of Badajoz and Caceres in Spain. Pop. (1900) 2,095,818; area,
23,055 sq. m. The name of Estremadura appears to be of early Romance or
Late Latin origin, and probably was applied to all the far western lands
(_extrema ora_) bordering upon the lower Tagus, as far as the Atlantic
Ocean. It is thus equivalent to _Land's End_, or _Finistere_. In popular
speech it is more commonly used than the names of the modern divisions
mentioned above, which were created in the 19th century. As, however,
there are many racial, economic and historic differences between
Portuguese and Spanish Estremadura, the two provinces are separately
described below.
1. Portuguese Estremadura is bounded on the N. by Beira, E. and S. by
Alemtejo, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,221,418; area,
6937 sq. m. The greatest length of the province, from N. to S., is 165
m.; its greatest breadth, from E. to W., is 72 m. The general uniformity
of the coast-line is broken by the broad and deep estuaries of the Tagus
and the Sado, and by the four conspicuous promontories of Cape
Carvoeiro, Cape da Roca, Cape Espichel and Cape de Sines. The Tagus is
the great navigable waterway of Portuguese Estremadura, flowing from
north-east to south-west, and fed by many minor tributaries, notably the
Zezere on the right and the Zatas on the left. It divides the country
into two nearly equal portions, wholly dissimilar in surface and
character. South of the Tagus the land is almost everywhere low, flat
and monotonous, while in several places it is rendered unhealthy by
undrained marshes. The Sado, which issues into Setubal Bay, is the only
important river of this region. North of the Tagus, and parallel with
its right bank, extends the mountain chain which is known at its
northern extremity as the Serra do Aire and, where it terminates above
Cape da Roca, as the Serra da Cintra. This ridge, which is buttressed on
all sides by lesser groups of hills, and includes part of the famous
lines of Torres Vedras (q.v.), exceeds 2200 ft. in height, and
constitutes the watershed between the right-hand tributaries of the
Tagus and the Liz, Sizandro and other small rivers which flow into the
Atlantic. On its seaward side, except for the line of sheer and lofty
cliffs between Cape Carvoeiro and Cape da Roca, the country is mostly
flat and sandy, with extensive heaths and pine forests; but along the
fertile and well-cultivated right bank of the Tagus the river scenery,
with its terraced hills of vines, olives and fruit trees, often
resembles that of the Rhine in Germany. The natural resources of
Portuguese Estremadura, with its inhabitants, industries, commerce,
communications, &c., are described under PORTUGAL; for on such matters
there is little to be said of this central and most characteristic
province which does not apply to the whole kingdom. Separate articles
are also devoted to Lisbon, the capital, and Abrantes, Cintra, Leiria,
Mafra, Santarem, Setubal, Thomar, Torres Novas and Torres Vedras, the
other chief towns. The women of Peniche, a small fishing village on the
promontory of Cape Carvoeiro, have long been celebrated throughout
Portugal for their skill in the manufacture of fine laces.
2. Spanish Estremadura is bounded on the N. by Leon and Old Castile, E.
by New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by the Portuguese province of
Beira and Alemtejo, which separate it from Portuguese Estremadura. Pop.
(1900) 882,410; area, 16,118 sq. m. Spanish Estremadura consists of a
tableland separated from Leon and Old Castile by the lofty Sierra de
Gredos, the plateau of Bejar and the Sierra de Gata, which form an
almost continuous barrier along the northern frontier, with its summits
ranging from 6000 to more than 8500 ft. in altitude. On the south the
comparatively low range of the Sierra Morena constitutes the frontier of
Andalusia; on the east and west there is a still more gradual transition
to the plateau of New Castile and the central plains of Portugal. The
tableland of Spanish Estremadura is itself bisected from east to west by
a line of mountains, the Sierras of San Pedro, Montanchez and Guadalupe
(4000-6000 ft.), which separate its northern half, drained by the river
Tagus, from its southern half, drained by the Guadiana. These two halves
are respectively known as Alta or Upper Estremadura (the modern
Caceres), and Baja or Lower Estremadura (the modern Badajoz). The Tagus
and Guadiana flow from east to west through a monotonous country, level
or slightly undulating, often almost uninhabited, and covered with a
thin growth of shrubs and grass. Perhaps the most characteristic feature
of this tableland is the vast heaths of gum-cistus, which in spring
colour the whole landscape with leagues of yellow blossom, and in summer
change to a brown and arid wilderness.
The climate in summer is hot but not unhealthy, except in the swamps
which occur along the Guadiana. The rainfall is scanty; dew, however, is
abundant and the nights are cool. Although the high mountains are
covered with snow in November, the winters are not usually severe. The
soil is naturally fertile, but drought, floods and locusts render
agriculture difficult, and sheep-farming is the most important of
Estremaduran industries. (See SPAIN: _Agriculture_.) In the 19th
century, however, this industry lost much of its former importance owing
to foreign competition.
Immense herds of swine are bred and constitute a great source of support
to the inhabitants, not only supplying them with food, but also forming
a great article of export to other provinces--the pork, bacon and hams
being in high esteem. The beech, oak and chestnut woods afford an
abundance of food for swine, and there are numerous plantations of
olive, cork and fruit trees, but a far greater area of forest has been
destroyed. For an account of commerce, mining, communications, &c., in
Spanish Estremadura, with a list of the chief towns, see CACERES and
BADAJOZ. In character and physical type, the people of this region are
less easily classified than those of other Spanish provinces. They lack
the endurance and energy of the Galicians, the independent and
enterprising spirit of the Asturians, Basques and Catalans, the culture
of the Castilians and Andalusians. Their failure to develop a
distinctive local type of character and civilization is perhaps due to
the adverse economic history of their country. The two great waterways
which form the natural outlet for Estremaduran commerce flow to the
Atlantic through a foreign and, for centuries, a hostile territory. Like
other parts of Spain, Estremadura suffered severely from the expulsion
of the Jews and Moors (1492-1610), while the compensating treasure,
derived during the same period from Spanish America, never reached a
province so remote at once from the sea and from the chief centres of
national life. Although Cortes (1485-1547), the conqueror of Mexico and
Pizarro (c. 1471-1541), the conqueror of Peru, were both born in
Estremadura, their exploits, far from bringing prosperity to their
native province, only encouraged the emigration of its best inhabitants.
Heavy taxation and harsh land-laws prevented any recovery, while the
felling of the forests reduced many fertile areas to waste land, and
rendered worse a climate already unfavourable to agriculture. Few
countries leave upon the mind of the traveller a deeper impression of
hopeless poverty.
ESTREMOZ, a town of Portugal, in the district of Evora, formerly
included in the province of Alemtejo; 104 m. by rail E. of Lisbon, on
the Casa Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1900) 7920. Estremoz is built
at the base of a hill crowned by a large dismantled citadel; its
fortifications, which in the 17th century accommodated 20,000 troops and
rendered the town one of the principal defences of the frontier, are now
obsolete. There are marble quarries in the neighbourhood, and the
Estremoz _bilhas_, red earthenware jars, are used throughout Portugal as
water-holders and exported to Spain. At Ameixial (1188) and Monies
Claros, near Estremoz, the Spanish were severely defeated by the
Portuguese in 1663 and 1665. Villa Vicosa (3841), 10 m. S.E., is a town
of pre-Roman origin, containing a royal palace. The altars with Latin
inscriptions to the Iberian god Endovellicus, found at Villa Vicosa, are
preserved in the museum of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon.
ESTUARY (from the Lat. _aestuarium_, a place reached by _aestus_, the
tide), an arm of the sea narrowing inwards at the mouth of a river where
sea and fresh water meet and are mixed, i.e. the tidal portion of a
river's mouth. Structurally the estuary may represent the long-continued
action of river erosion and tidal erosion confined to a narrow channel,
most effective where most concentrated, or an estuary may be the drowned
portion of the lower part of a river-valley. In a map of Britain showing
sea-depths it will be observed that under the Severn estuary the sea
deepens in a number of steps descending by concentric V's that become
blunter towards deep water until the last is a mere indentation pointing
towards the long narrow termination of the present estuary. In this and
in similar cases the progress of the estuary is indicated upon what is
now the continental shelf. The chief interest in estuarine conditions is
the mingling of sea and fresh water. Where, as in the Severn and the
Thames, the fresh water meets the sea gradually the water is mixed, and
there is very little change in salinity at high tide. The fresh water
flows over the salt water and there is a continuous rapid change, in
salinity towards the sea, for the currents sweeping in and out mix the
water constantly. Where the river brings down a great quantity of fresh
water in a narrow channel, the change of salinity at high and low water
is very marked. "When, however, the inlet is very large compared with
the river, and there is no bar at the opening, the estuarine character
is only shown at the upper end. In the Firth of Forth, for example, the
landward half is an estuary, but in the seaward half the water has
become more thoroughly mixed, the salinity is almost uniform from
surface to bottom, and increases very gradually towards the sea. The
river-water meets the sea diffused uniformly through a deep mass of
water scarcely fresher than the sea itself, so that the two mix
uniformly, and the sea becomes slightly freshened throughout its whole
depth for many miles from land" (H.R. Mill, _Realm of Nature_, 1897).
ESZTERGOM (Ger. _Gran_; Lat. _Strigonium_), a town of Hungary, capital
of the county of the same name, 36 m. N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
(1900) 16,948, mostly Magyars and Roman Catholics. It is situated on the
right bank of the Danube, nearly opposite the confluence of the Gran,
and is divided into the town proper and three suburbs. The town is the
residence of the primate of Hungary, and its cathedral, built in
1821-1870, after the model of St Peter's at Rome, is one of the finest
and largest in the country. It is picturesquely built on an elevated and
commanding position, 215 ft. above the Danube, and its dome, visible
from a long distance, is 260 ft. high, and has a diameter of 52 ft. The
interior is very richly decorated, notably with fine frescoes, and its
treasury and fine library of over 60,000 volumes are famous. Besides
several other churches and two monastic houses, the principal buildings
include the handsome palace of the primate, erected in 1883; the
archiepiscopal library, with valuable incunabula and old MSS.; the
seminary for the education of Roman Catholic priests; the residences of
the chapter; and the town-hall. The population is chiefly employed in
cloth-weaving, wine-making and agricultural pursuits. An iron bridge,
1664 ft. long, connects Esztergom with the market town of Parkany (pop.
2836) on the opposite bank of the Danube.
Esztergom is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, and is famous as the
birthplace of St Stephen, the first prince crowned "apostolic king" of
Hungary. During the early times of the Hungarian monarchy it was the
most important mercantile centre in the country, and it was the
meeting-place of the diets of 1016, 1111, 1114 and 1256. It was almost
completely destroyed by Tatar hordes in 1241, but was rebuilt and
fortified by King Bela IV. In 1543 it fell into the hands of the Turks,
from whom it was recovered, in 1595, by Carl von Mansfeld. In 1604 it
reverted to the Turks, who held it till 1683, when it was regained by
the united forces of John Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles
of Lorraine. It was created an archbishopric in 1001. During the Turkish
occupation of the town the archbishopric was removed to Tyrnau, while
the archbishop himself had his residence in Pressburg. Both returned to
Esztergom in 1820. In 1708 it was declared a free city by Joseph I. On
the 13th of April 1818 it was partly destroyed by fire.
For numerous authorities on the see and cathedral of Esztergom see V.
Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources_. _Topo-bibliogr._ s.v. "Gran." Of
these may be mentioned especially F. Knauz, _Monumenta Ecclesiae
Strigoniensis_ (3 vols., Eszterg, 1874); Joseph Danko,
_Geschichtliches ... aus dem Graner Domschatz_ (Gran, 1880).
ETAGERE, a piece of light furniture very similar to the English
what-not, which was extensively made in France during the latter part of
the 18th century. As the name implies, it consists of a series of stages
or shelves for the reception of ornaments or other small articles. Like
the what-not it was very often cornerwise in shape, and the best Louis
XVI. examples in exotic woods are exceedingly graceful and elegant.
ETAH, a town and district of British India, in the Agra division of the
United Provinces. The town is situated on the Grand Trunk road. Pop.
(1901) 8796. The district has an area of 1737 sq. m. The district
consists for the most part of an elevated alluvial plateau, dipping down
on its eastern slope into the valley of the Ganges. The uplands are
irrigated by the Ganges canal. Between the modern bed of the Ganges and
its ancient channel lies a belt of fertile land, covered with a rich
deposit of silt, and abundantly supplied with natural moisture. A long
line of swamps and hollows still marks the former course of the river;
and above it rises abruptly the original cliff which now forms the
terrace of the upland plain. The Kali Nadi, a small stream flowing in a
deep and narrow gorge, passes through the centre of the district, and
affords an outlet for the surface drainage. Etah was at an early date
the seat of a primitive Aryan civilization, and the surrounding country
is mentioned by Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim of the 7th
century A.D., as rich in temples and monasteries. But after the bloody
repression of Buddhism before the 8th century, the district seems to
have fallen once more into the hands of aboriginal tribes, from whom it
was wrested a second time by Rajputs during the course of their great
migration eastward. With the rest of upper India it passed under the
sway of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017, and thenceforth followed the fortunes
of the Mahommedan empire. At the end of the 18th century it formed part
of the territory over which the wazir of Oudh had made himself ruler,
and it came into the possession of the British government in 1801, under
the treaty of Lucknow. During the mutiny of 1857 it was the scene of
serious disturbances, coupled with the usual anarchic quarrels among the
native princes. In 1901 the population was 863,948, showing an increase
of 23% in the decade due to the extension of canal irrigation. It is
traversed by a branch of the Rajputana railway from Agra to Cawnpore,
with stations at Kasganj and Soron, which are the two largest towns. It
has several printing presses, indigo factories, and factories for
pressing cotton, and there is a considerable agricultural export trade.
ETAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELEU D'HEILLY, DUCHESSE D' (1508-c. 1580),
mistress of Francis I. of France, daughter of Guillaume de Pisseleu,
sieur d'Heilly, a nobleman of Picardy. She came to court before 1522,
and was one of the maids of honour of Louise of Savoy. Francis I. made
her his mistress, probably on his return from his captivity at Madrid
(1526), and soon gave up Madame de Chateaubriant for her. Anne was
sprightly, pretty, witty and cultured, and succeeded in keeping the
favour of the king till the end of the reign (1547). The liaison
received some official recognition; when Queen Eleanor entered Paris
(1530), the king and Anne occupied the same window. In 1533 Francis gave
her in marriage to Jean de Brosse, whom he created duc d'Etampes. The
influence of the duchesse d'Etampes, especially in the last years of the
reign, was considerable. She upheld Admiral Chabot against the constable
de Montmorency, who was supported by her rival, Diane de Poitiers, the
dauphin's mistress. She was a friend to new ideas, and co-operated with
the king's sister, Marguerite d'Angouleme. She used her influence to
elevate and enrich her family, her uncle, Antoine Sanguin (d. 1559),
being made bishop of Orleans in 1535 and a cardinal in 1539.[1] The
accusations made against her of having allowed herself to be won over by
the emperor Charles V. and of playing the traitor in 1544 rest on no
serious proof. After the death of Francis I. (1547) she was dismissed
from the court by Diane de Poitiers, humiliated in every way, and died
in obscurity much later, probably in the reign of Henry III.
See Paulin Paris, _Etudes sur Francois I^er_ (Paris, 1885).