During the greater part of 1567 Eric was so deranged that a committee

of senators was appointed to govern the kingdom. One of his illusions

was that not he was king but his brother John, whom he now set at

liberty. When, at the beginning of 1568, Eric recovered his reason, a

reconciliation was effected between the king and the duke, on condition

that John recognized the legality of his brother's marriage with Karin

Mansdatter, and her children as the successors to the throne. A month

later, on the 4th of July, he was solemnly married to Karin at Stockholm

by the primate. The next day Karin was crowned queen of Sweden and her

infant son Gustavus proclaimed prince-royal. Shortly after his marriage

Eric issued a circular ordering a general thanksgiving for his delivery

from the assaults of the devil. This document, in every line of which

madness is legible, convinced most thinking people that Eric was unfit

to reign. The royal dukes, John and Charles, had already taken measures

to depose him; and in July the rebellion broke out in Ostergotland. Eric

at first offered a stout resistance and won two victories; but on the

17th of September the dukes stood before Stockholm, and Eric, after

surrendering Goran Persson to the horrible vengeance of his enemies,

himself submitted, and resigned the crown. On the 30th of September 1568

John III. was proclaimed king by the army and the nobility; and a

_Riksdag_, summoned to Stockholm, confirmed the choice and formally

deposed Eric on the 25th of January 1569. For the next seven years the

ex-king was a source of the utmost anxiety to the new government. No

fewer than three rebellions, with the object of releasing and

reinstating him, had to be suppressed, and his prison was changed half a

dozen times. On the 10th of March 1575, an assembly of notables, lay and

clerical, at John's request, pronounced a formal sentence of death upon

him. Two years later, on the 24th of February 1577, he died suddenly in

his new prison at Orbyhus, poisoned, it is said, by his governor, Johan

Henriksen.

See _Sveriges Historia_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1880); Robert Nisbet

Bain, _Scandinavia_, cap. 4-6 (Cambridge, 1905); Eric Tegel, _Konung

Eriks den XIV. historia_ (Stockholm, 1751). (R. N. B.)

ERICACEAE, in botany, a natural order of plants belonging to the higher

or gamopetalous division of Dicotyledons. They are woody plants,

sometimes with a slender creeping stem as in bilberry, _Vaccinium_ (fig.

1), or _Andromeda_ (fig. 2), or forming low bushes as in the heaths, or

larger, sometimes becoming tree-like, as in species of _Rhododendron_.

The leaves are alternate, opposite or whorled in arrangement, and in

their form and structure show well-marked adaptation for life in dry or

exposed situations. Thus in the true heaths they are needle-like, with

the margins often rolled back to form a groove or an almost closed

chamber on the under side. In others such as _Rhododendron_ or _Arbutus_

they are often leathery and evergreen, the strongly cuticularized upper

surface protecting a water-storing tissue situated above the green

layers of the leaf. The flowers are sometimes solitary and axillary or

terminal as in _Andromeda_, but are generally arranged in racemose

inflorescences at the end of the branches as in _Arbutus_ and

_Rhododendron_, or on small lateral shoots as in _Erica_. They are

hermaphrodite and generally regular with parts in 4 or 5, thus: sepals

4 or 5, petals 4 or 5, stamens 8 or 10 in two series, the outer of which

is opposite the petals, and carpels 4 or 5. The corolla is usually more

or less bell-shaped, and in the heaths persists in a dry state in the

fruit. The petals with the stamens are situated on the outer edge of a

honey-secreting disk. The anthers show a very great variety in shape,

the halves are often more or less free and often appendaged; they open

to allow the escape of the pollen by a terminal pore or slit. The

carpels are united to form a 4- to 5-chambered ovary, which bears a

simple elongated style ending in a capitate stigma; each ovary-chamber

contains one to many ovules attached to a central placenta. The brightly

coloured corolla, the presence of nectar and the scent render the

flowers attractive to insects, and the projection of the stigma beyond

the anthers favours crossing. The fruit is generally a capsule

containing many seeds, as in _Erica_ (fig. 3) or _Rhododendron_;

sometimes a berry as in _Arbutus_.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Vaccinium vitis-idaea_, with leaf and flower,

nat. size. 1, Flower of _V. myrtillus_, cut lengthwise. 2, Fruit of

same.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Andromeda Hypnoides_, nat. size. 1, Flower; 2,

Unripe fruit cut across; 3, Stamen--all enlarged.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.

1, Flowering shoot of _Erica cinerea_, about 1-1/2 nat. size.

2, Flower cut lengthwise.

3, Stamen showing appendages and porous dehiscence of anther.

4, Capsule showing the loculicidal dehiscence; a few seeds remain

attached to the central axis.

5, Diagram of the flower having four sepals, four divisions of the

corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four divisions of the

pistil.]

The order falls into four distinct tribes, which are characterized by

the relative position of the ovary and by the fruit and seed. They are

as follows:--

1. _Rhododendron tribe_, characterized by capsular fruit, seed with a

loose coat, deciduous petals and anthers without appendages. It consists

mainly of the great genus _Rhododendron_ (in which _Azalea_ is included

by recent botanists), which is chiefly developed in the mountains of

eastern Asia, many species occurring on the Himalayas. _Dabeocia_, St

Dabeoc's heath, occurs in Ireland.

2. _Arbutus Tribe._--Fruit a berry or capsule, petals deciduous and

anthers with bristle-like appendages, chiefly north temperate to arctic

in distribution. _Arbutus Unedo_, the strawberry-tree, so called from

its large scarlet berry, is a southern European species which extends

into south Ireland. _Arctostaphylos_ (bearberry) and _Andromeda_ are

arctic and alpine genera occurring in Britain. _Epigaea repens_ is the

trailing arbutus or mayflower of Atlantic America.

3. _Vaccinium Tribe._--Ovary inferior, fruit a berry. Extends from the

north temperate zone to the mountains of the tropics. _Vaccinium_, the

largest genus, has four British species: _V. Myrtillus_ is the bilberry

(q.v.), blaeberry or whortleberry, _V. Vitis-Idaea_ the cowberry, and

_V. Oxycoccos_ the cranberry (q.v.). This tribe is sometimes regarded as

a separate order Vacciniaceae, distinguished by its inferior ovary.

4. _Erica Tribe._--Fruit usually a capsule, seeds round, not winged;

corolla persisting round the ripe fruit; anthers often appendaged. The

largest genus is _Erica_, the true heath (q.v.), with over 400 species,

the great majority of which are confined to the Cape; others occur on

the mountains of tropical Africa and in Europe and North Africa,

especially the Mediterranean region. _E. cinerea_ (purple heather) and

_E. Tetralix_ (cross-leaved heath) are common British heaths. _Calluna_

is the ling or Scotch heather.

ERICHSEN, SIR JOHN ERIC, Bart. (1818-1896), British surgeon, born on the

19th of July 1818 at Copenhagen, was the son of Eric Erichsen, a member

of a well-known Danish family. He studied medicine at University

College, London, and at Paris, devoting himself in the early years of

his career to physiology, and lecturing on general anatomy and

physiology at University College hospital. In 1844 he was secretary to

the physiological section of the British Association, and in 1845 he was

awarded the Fothergillian gold medal of the Royal Humane Society for his

essay on asphyxia. In 1848 he was appointed assistant surgeon at

University College hospital, and in 1850 became full surgeon and

professor of surgery, his lectures and clinical teaching being much

admired; and in 1875 he joined the consulting staff. His _Science and

Art of Surgery_ (1853) went through many editions. He rose to be

president of the College of Surgeons in 1880. From 1879 to 1881 he was

president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. He was created a

baronet in 1895, having been for some years surgeon-extraordinary to

Queen Victoria. As a surgeon his reputation was world-wide, and he

counts (says Sir W. MacCormac in his volume on the Centenary of the

Royal College of Surgeons) "among the makers of modern surgery." He was

a recognized authority on concussion of the spine, and was often called

to give evidence in court on obscure cases caused by railway accidents,

&c. He died at Folkestone on the 23rd of September 1896.

ERICHT, LOCH, a lake partly in Inverness-shire and partly in Perthshire,

Scotland, lying between the districts of Badenoch on the N. and Rannoch

on the S. The boundary line is drawn from a point opposite to the mouth

of the Alder, and follows the centre of the longitudinal axis

north-eastwards to 56 deg. 50' N., where it strikes eastwards to the

shore. All of the lake to the S. and E. of this line belongs to

Perthshire, the rest, forming the major portion, to Inverness-shire. It

is a lonely lake, situated in extremely wild surroundings at a height of

1153 ft. above the sea, being thus the loftiest lake of large size in

the United Kingdom. It is over 14-1/2 m. long, with a mean breadth of

half a mile and over 1 m. at its maximum. Its area amounts to some 7-1/4

sq. m., and it receives the drainage of an area of nearly 50-1/2 sq. m.

The mean depth is 189 ft., and the maximum 512 ft. It has a general

trend from N.E. to S.W., the head lying 1 m. from Dalwhinnie station on

the Highland railway. It receives many streams, and discharges at the

south-western extremity by the Ericht. Salmon and trout afford good

fishing. The surrounding mountains are lofty and rugged. Ben Alder (3757

ft.) on the west shore is the chief feature of the great Corrour deer

forest. The only point of interest on the banks is the cavern, near the

mouth of the Alder, in which Prince Charles Edward concealed himself for

a time after the battle of Culloden.

ERICSSON, JOHN (1803-1889), Swedish-American naval engineer, was born at

Langbanshyttan, Wermland, Sweden, on the 31st of July 1803. He was the

second son of Olaf Ericsson, an inspector of mines, who died in 1818.

Showing from his earliest years a strong mechanical bent, young

Ericsson, at the age of twelve, was employed as a draughtsman by the

Swedish Canal Company. From 1820 to 1827 he served in the army, where

his drawing and military maps attracted the attention of the king, and

he soon attained the rank of captain. In 1826 he went to London, at

first on leave of absence from his regiment, and in partnership with

John Braithwaite constructed the "Novelty," a locomotive engine for the

Liverpool & Manchester railway competition at Rainhill in 1829, when the

prize, however, was won by Stephenson's "Rocket." The number of

Ericsson's inventions at this period was very great. Among other things

he worked out a plan for marine engines placed entirely below the

water-line. Such engines were made for the "Victory," for Captain

(afterwards Sir) John Ross's voyage to the Arctic regions in 1829, but

they did not prove satisfactory. In 1833 his caloric engine was made

public. In 1836 he took out a patent for a screw-propeller, and though

the priority of his invention could not be maintained, he was afterwards

awarded a one-fifth share of the L20,000 given by the Admiralty for it.

At this time Captain Stockton, of the United States navy, gave an order

for a small iron vessel to be built by Laird of Birkenhead, and to be

fitted by Ericsson with engines and screw. This vessel reached New York

in May 1839. A few months later Ericsson followed his steamer to New

York, and there he resided for the rest of his life, establishing

himself as an engineer and a builder of iron ships. In 1848 he was

naturalized as a citizen of the United States. He had many difficulties

to contend with, and it was only by slow degrees that he established his

fame and won his way to competence. At his death he seems to have been

worth about L50,000. The provision of defensive armour for ships of war

had long occupied his attention, and he had constructed plans and a

model of a vessel lying low in the water, carrying one heavy gun in a

circular turret mounted on a turntable. In 1854 he sent his plans to the

emperor of the French. Louis Napoleon, however, acting probably on the

advice of Dupuy de Lome, declined to use them. The American Civil War,

and the report that the Confederates were converting the "Merrimac" into

an ironclad, caused the navy department to invite proposals for the

construction of armoured ships. Among others, Ericsson replied, and as

it was thought that his design might be serviceable in inland waters,

the first armoured turret ship, the "Monitor," was ordered; she was

launched on the 30th of January 1862, and on the 9th of March she fought

the celebrated action with the Confederate ram "Merrimac." The peculiar

circumstances in which she was built, the great importance of the

battle, and the decisive nature of the result gave the "Monitor" an

exaggerated reputation, which further experience did not confirm. In

later years Ericsson devoted himself to the study of torpedoes and sun

motors. He published _Solar Investigations_ (New York, 1875) and

_Contributions to the Centennial Exhibition_ (New York, 1877). He died

in New York on the 8th of March 1889, and in the following year, on the

request of the Swedish government, his body was sent to Stockholm and

thence into Wermland, where, at Filipstad, it was buried on the 15th of

September.

A _Life of Ericsson_ by William Conant Church was published in

New York in 1890 and in London in 1893.

ERIDANUS, or FLUVIUS ("the river"), in astronomy, a constellation of the

southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus

(3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued 34 stars in it. [theta]

_Eridani_, a fine double star of magnitudes 3.5 and 5.5, is now of the

third magnitude. It is supposed to be identical with the _Achernar_ of

Al-Sufi, who described it as of the first magnitude; this star has

therefore decreased in brilliancy in historic times. The star [omicron]2

_Eridani_ (numbered 40 by Flamsteed) was discovered to be a ternary

star group by Herschel in 1783; it consists of a close pair, of

magnitudes 9.2 and 10.9, revolving in a period of 180 years, associated

with a star of magnitude 4.5, which is distant from the pair by 82";

these stars have an exceptionally swift proper motion, about 4" per

annum. Eridanus was the ancient name of the river Po.

ERIDU, one of the oldest religious centres of the Sumerians, described

in the ancient Babylonian records as the "city of the deep." The special

god of this city was Ea (q.v.), god of the sea and of wisdom, and the

prominence given to this god in the incantation literature of Babylonia

and Assyria suggests not only that many of our magical texts are to be

traced ultimately to the temple of Ea at Eridu, but that this side of

the Babylonian religion had its origin in that place. Certain of the

most ancient Babylonian myths, especially that of Adapa, may also be

traced back to the shrine of Ea at Eridu. But while of the first

importance in matters of religion, there is no evidence in Babylonian

literature of any special political importance attaching to Eridu, and

certainly at no time within our knowledge did it exercise hegemony in

Babylonia. The site of Eridu was discovered by J.E. Taylor in 1854, in a

ruin then called by the natives Abu-Shahrein, a few miles

south-south-west of Moghair, ancient Ur, nearly in the centre of the dry

bed of an inland sea, a deep valley, 15 m. at its broadest, covered for

the most part with a nitrous incrustation, separated from the alluvial

plain about Moghair by a low, pebbly, sandstone range, called the Hazem,

but open toward the north to the Euphrates and stretching southward to

the Khanega wadi below Suk-esh-Sheiukh. In the rainy season this valley

becomes a sea, flooded by the discharge of the Khanega; in summer the

Arabs dig holes here which supply them with brackish water. The ruins,

in which Taylor conducted brief excavations, consist of a platform of

fine sand enclosed by a sandstone wall, 20 ft. high, the corners toward

the cardinal points, on the N.W. part of which was a pyramidal tower of

two stages, constructed of sun-dried brick, cased with a wall of

kiln-burned brick, the whole still standing to a height of about 70 ft.

above the platform. The summit of the first stage was reached by a

staircase on the S.E. side, 15 ft. wide and 70 ft. long, constructed of

polished marble slabs, fastened with copper bolts, flanked at the foot

by two curious columns. An inclined road led up to the second stage on

the N.W. side. Pieces of polished alabaster and marble, with small

pieces of pure gold and gold-headed copper nails, found on and about the

top of the second stage, indicated that a small but richly adorned

sacred chamber, apparently plated within or without in gold, formerly

crowned the top of this structure. Around the whole tower was a pavement

of inscribed baked bricks, resting on a layer of clay 2 ft. thick. On

the S.E. part of the terrace were the remains of several edifices,

containing suites of rooms. Inscriptions on the bricks identified the

site as that of Eridu. Since Taylor's time the place has not been

visited by any explorer, owing to the unsafe condition of the

neighbourhood; but T.K. Loftus (1854) and J.P. Peters (1890) both report

having seen it from the summit of Moghair. The latter states that the

Arabs at that time called the ruin Nowawis, and apparently no longer

knew the name Abu-Shahrein. Through an error, in many recent maps and

Assyriological publications Eridu is described as located in the

alluvial plain, between the Tigris and the Euphrates. It was, in fact,

an island city in an estuary of the Persian Gulf, stretching up into the

Arabian plateau. Originally "on the shore of the sea," as the old

records aver, it is now about 120 m. from the head of the Persian Gulf.

Calculating from the present rate of deposit of alluvium at the head of

that gulf, Eridu should have been founded as early as the seventh

millennium B.C. It is mentioned in historical inscriptions from the

earliest times onward, as late as the 6th century B.C. From the evidence

of Taylor's excavations, it would seem that the site was abandoned about

the close of the Babylonian period.

See J.E. Taylor, _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, vol. xv.

(1855); F. Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (1881); J.P. Peters,

_Nippur_ (1897); M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_

(1898); H.V. Hilprecht, _Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia_ (1904);

L.W. King, _A History of Sumer and Akkad_ (1910). (J. P. Pe.)

ERIE, the most southerly of the Great Lakes of North America, between 41

deg. 23' and 42 deg. 53' N., and 78 deg. 51' and 83 deg. 28' W., bounded

W. by the state of Michigan, S. and S.E. by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New

York, and N. by the province of Ontario. It is nearly elliptical, the

major axis, 250 m. long, lying east and west; its greatest breadth is 60

m.; its area about 10,000 sq. m.; and the total area of its basin 34,412

sq. m. Its elevation above mean sea-level is 573 ft.; and its surface is

nearly 9 ft. below that of Lake Huron, which discharges into it through

St Clair river, Lake St Clair and Detroit river, and is 327 ft. above

that of Lake Ontario, this great difference being absorbed by the rapids

and falls in the Niagara river, which joins the two lakes. Lake Erie is

very shallow, and may be divided into three basins, the western

extending to Point Pelee and including all the islands, containing about

1200 sq. m., with a comparatively flat bottom at 5 to 6 fathoms; the

main basin, between Point Pelee and the narrows at Long Point,

containing about 6700 sq. m., and having a marked shelving bottom

deepening gradually to 14 fathoms; and the portion east of the narrows,

containing about 2100 sq. m., having a depression 30 fathoms deep just

east from Long Point, with an extensive flat of 11 fathoms depth between

it and the main basin. The Canadian shore is low and flat throughout,

the United States shore is low but bordered by an elevated plateau

through which the rivers have cut deep channels. The lake basin is

relatively so small that the rivers are without importance; Grand river,

on the north shore, is the largest tributary. The flat alluvial soil

bordering on the lake is very fertile, and the climate is well adapted

for fruit cultivation. Large quantities of peaches, grapes and small

fruits are grown; the islands in the west end have a climate much warmer

and more equable than the adjoining mainland, and are practically

covered with vineyards. The low clayey or sandy shores are subject to

erosion by waves. In severe storms the water near shore is filled with

sand, which is deposited where the currents are checked around the ends

of jetties in such a way as to form bars out into the lake across

improved channels. This shoaling has rendered continuous dredging

necessary at every harbour on the lake west of Erie, Pa. In consequence

of the shallowness of the lake its waters are easily disturbed, making

navigation very rough and dangerous, and causing large fluctuations of

surface. Strong winds are frequent, as nearly every cyclonic depression

traversing North America, either from the westward or the Gulf of

Mexico, passes near enough to Lake Erie to be felt. Westerly gales are

more frequent, and have more effect on the water surface than easterly

ones, lowering the water as much as 7 to 8 ft. at the west end and

raising it 5 to 8 ft. at the east end. The worst storms occur in autumn,

when the immense quantity of shipping on the lake makes them specially

destructive. There are no tides, and usually only a slight current

towards the outlet, though powerful currents are temporarily produced by

the rapid return of waters after a storm, and during the height of a

westerly gale there is invariably a reflex current into the west end of

the lake. There is an annual fluctuation in the level of the lake,

varying from a minimum of 9 in. to a maximum of 2 ft., the normal low

level occurring in February and the high level in midsummer. Standard

high water (of 1838) is 575.11 ft. above mean sea-level, and the lowest

record was 570.8 in November 1895. The harbours and exits of the lake

freeze over, but the body of the lake never freezes completely.

Ice-breaking car ferries run across the lake all winter. General

navigation opens as a rule in the middle of April and closes in the

middle of December. The volume of traffic is immense, because

practically all freight from the more westerly lakes finds terminal

harbours in Lake Erie. Official statistics of commerce passing through

the Detroit river into the lake during the season of 1906 show that

35,128 vessels, having a net register of 50,673,897 tons, carried

63,805,571 (short) tons of freight, valued at $662,971,053. The 1175

vessels engaged in this business were valued at $106,223,000. Over 90%

of the whole traffic is in United States ships to United States ports.

Fine passenger steamers run nightly between Buffalo and Cleveland and

Detroit, and there are many shorter passenger routes.

The large traffic on Lake Erie has brought into existence a number of

important harbours on the south shore, nearly all artificially made and

deepened, with entrances between two breakwaters running into the lake

at right angles to the coast line. The principal of these are Toledo,

Sandusky, Huron, Vermilion, Lorain, Cleveland, Fairport, Ashtabula,

Conneaut, Erie (a natural harbour), Dunkirk and Buffalo, Rondeau, Port

Stanley, Port Burwell, Port Dover, Port Maitland and Port Colborne. The

Miami and Erie canal, leading from Maumee river to Cincinnati, 244-1/2

m., with a branch to Port Jefferson, 14 m., with locks 90 by 15 by 4

ft., connects with Lake Erie through Toledo. The Erie canal leading from

Buffalo to the Hudson river at Troy, and connecting with Lake Ontario at

Oswego, had a capacity for boats 98 ft. long, 17 ft. 10 in. beam, with 6

ft. draught, until in 1907 the State of New York undertook its deepening

to accommodate boats of 1000 tons capacity. Buffalo from its position at

the eastern limit of deep draught lake navigation is a city of first

rate commercial importance. Its harbour is formed by an artificial

breakwater, built parallel with the shore about half a mile distant from

it. It receives practically all the Lake Erie grain shipments besides

large quantities of iron ore, lumber and copper, and is a large shipping

port for coal, principally anthracite. It has over 600 m. of railway

tracks to accommodate lake freights. The Welland canal, 26-3/4 m. long,

connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, with locks 270 by 45 by 14 ft.,

leaves Lake Erie at Port Colborne, where the Canadian government have

constructed an artificial harbour and elevators for transhipment of

grain from upper lake freighters to lighters of canal capacity.

Fishing operations are carried on extensively in Lake Erie, the fish

being taken with gill nets, seines and pound nets. Each state touching

the lake has its own fishery regulations, which differ amongst

themselves as well as from those of the Dominion. Both nations maintain

a Fishery Protection Service, and the fisheries are replenished from

artificial hatcheries. The most numerous and valuable fish are the

lesser white fish (_Coregonus artedi_, Le Sueur), pickerel

(_Stizostedion vitreum_, Walb.), pike (_Lucius lucius_, L.), and white

fish (_Coregonus clupeiformis_, Mitchill), in the order named. The fish

caught are estimated to be worth annually $1,000,000. They are collected

in fishing tugs and distributed by rail throughout the United States and

Canada.

_Bibliography._--_Bulletin No. 17, Survey of Northern and

North-western Lakes_, U.S. Lake Survey Office, War Dept. (Detroit,

1907); _U.S. Hydrographic Office, Publication No. 108D, Sailing

Directions for Lake Erie, &c._ (Washington, 1902); _Sailing Directions

for the Canadian Shore of Lake Erie_, Department of Marine and

Fisheries (Ottawa, 1897); J.O. Curwood, _The Great Lakes_ (New York,

1909); E. Channing and M.F. Lansing, _The Great Lakes_ (New York,

1909). (W. P. A.)

ERIE, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie county,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Lake Erie, 148 m. by rail N. of Pittsburg and

near the N.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 40,634; (1900) 52,733, of

whom 11,957 were foreign-born, including 5226 from Germany and 1468 from

Ireland, and 26,797 were of foreign parentage (both parents

foreign-born), including 13,316 of German parentage and 4203 of Irish

parentage; (1910 census) 66,525. Erie is served by the New York, Chicago

& St Louis, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Erie & Pittsburg

(Pennsylvania Company), the Philadelphia & Erie (Pennsylvania railway),

and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and by steamboat lines to many

important lake ports. The city extends over an area of about 7 sq. m.,

which for the most part is quite level and is from 50 to 175 ft. above

the lake. Erie has a fine harbour about 4 m. in length, more than 1 m.

in width, and with an average depth of about 20 ft.; it is nearly

enclosed by Presque Isle, a long narrow strip of land of about 3000

acres from 300 ft. to 1 m. in width, and the national government has

protected its entrance and deepened its channel by constructing two long

breakwaters. Most of the streets of the city are 60 ft. wide--a few are

100 ft.--and nearly all intersect at right angles; they are paved with

brick and asphalt, and many in the residential quarters are shaded with

fine elms and maples. The city has four parks, in one of which is a

soldiers' and sailors' monument of granite and bronze, and not far away,

along the shore of lake and bay, are several attractive summer resorts.

Among Erie's more prominent buildings are the United States government

building, the city hall, the public library, and the county court house.

The city's charitable institutions consist of two general hospitals,

each of which has a training school for nurses; a municipal hospital, an

orphan asylum, a home for the friendless, two old folks' homes, and a

bureau of charities; here, also, on a bluff, within a large enclosure

and overlooking both lake and city, is the state soldiers' and sailors'

home, and near by is a monument erected to the memory of General Anthony

Wayne, who died here on the 15th of December 1796.

Erie is the commercial centre of a large and rich grape-growing and

agricultural district, has an extensive trade with the lake ports and by

rail (chiefly in coal, iron ore, lumber and grain), and is an important

manufacturing centre, among its products being iron, engines, boilers,

brass castings, stoves, car heaters, flour, malt liquors, lumber,

planing mill products, cooperage products, paper and wood pulp, cigars

and other tobacco goods, gas meters, rubber goods, pipe organs, pianos

and chemicals. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at

$19,911,567, the value of foundry and machine-shop products being

$6,723,819, of flour and grist-mill products $1,444,450, and of malt

liquors $882,493. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.

On the site of Erie the French erected Fort Presque Isle in 1753, and

about it founded a village of a few hundred inhabitants. George

Washington, on behalf of the governor of Virginia, came in the same year

to Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of the present Waterford), 20 m. distant,

to protest against the French fortifying this section of country. The

protest, however, was unheeded. The village was abandoned in or before

1758, owing probably to an epidemic of smallpox, and the fort was

abandoned in 1759. It was occupied by the British in 1760, but on the

22nd of June 1763 this was one of the several forts captured by the

Indians during the Conspiracy of Pontiac. In 1764 the British regained

nominal control and retained it until 1785, when it passed into the

possession of the United States. The place was laid out as a town in

1795; in 1800 it became the county-seat of the newly-erected county of

Erie; it was incorporated as a borough in 1805, the charter of that year

being revised in 1833; and in 1851 it was incorporated as a city. At

Erie were built within less than six months most of the vessels with

which Commodore Oliver H. Perry won his naval victory over the British

off Put-in-Bay on the 10th of September 1813.

ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS (c. 800-c. 877), medieval philosopher and

theologian. His real name was Johannes Scotus (Scottus) or John the

Scot. The combination Johannes Scotus Erigena has not been traced

earlier than Ussher and Gale; even Gale uses it only in the heading of

the version of St Maximus. The date of Erigena's birth is very

uncertain, and there is no evidence to show definitely where he was

born. The name Scotus, which has often been taken to imply Scottish

origin, really favours the theory that he was an Irishman according to

the then usage of _Scotus_ or _Scotigena_. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes,

definitely states that he was of Irish extraction. The pseudonym

commonly read Erigena, used by himself in the titles of his versions of

Dionysius the Areopagite, is _Ierugena_ (in later MSS. Erugena and

Eriugena), formed apparently on the analogy of _Graiugena_

("Greek-born"), which he applies to St Maximus. There seems no reason to

doubt that Eriugena is connected with Erin, the name for Ireland, and

Ierugena suggests the Greek [Greek: hieros, hieros nesos] being a common

name for Ireland. On the other hand, William of Malmesbury prefers to

read Heruligena, which would make Scotus a Pannonian, while Bale says he

was born at St David's, Dempster connects him with Ayr, and Gale with

Eriuven in Hereford. Some early writers thought there were two persons,

John Scotus and John Erigena.

Of Erigena's early life nothing is known. Bale quotes the story that he

travelled in Greece, Italy and Gaul, and studied not only Greek, but

also Arabic and Chaldaean. Since, however, Bale describes him as "ex

patricio genitore natus," it is a reasonable inference (so R.L. Poole)

that Bale confused him with one John, the son of Patricius, a Spaniard,

who tells much the same story of his own travels. The knowledge of Greek

displayed in Erigena's works is not such as to compel us to conclude

that he had actually visited Greece. That he had a competent

acquaintance with Greek is manifest from his translations of Dionysius

the Areopagite and of Maximus, from the manner in which he refers to

Aristotle, and from his evident familiarity with Neoplatonist writers

and the fathers of the early church. Roger Bacon, in his severe

criticism on the ignorance of Greek displayed by the most eminent

scholastic writers, expressly exempts Erigena, and ascribes to him a

knowledge of Aristotle in the original.

Among other legends which have at various times been attached to Erigena

are that he was invited to France by Charlemagne, and that he was one of

the founders of the university of Paris. The only portion of Erigena's

life as to which we possess accurate information was that spent at the

court of Charles the Bald. Charles invited him to France soon after his

accession to the throne, probably in the year 843, and placed him at the

head of the court school (_schola palatina_). The reputation of this

school seems to have increased greatly under Erigena's leadership, and

the philosopher himself was treated with indulgence by the king. William

of Malmesbury's amusing story illustrates both the character of Scotus

and the position he occupied at the French court. The king having asked,

"Quid distat inter sottum et Scottum?" Erigena replied, "Mensa tantum."

The first of the works known to have been written by Erigena during this

period was a treatise on the eucharist, which has not come down to us

(by some it has been identified with a treatise by Ratramnus, _De

corpore et sanguine Domini_). In it he seems to have advanced the

doctrine that the eucharist was merely symbolical or commemorative, an

opinion for which Berengarius was at a later date censured and

condemned. As a part of his penance Berengarius is said to have been

compelled to burn publicly Erigena's treatise. So far as we can learn,

however, Erigena's orthodoxy was not at the time suspected, and a few

years later he was selected by Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, to defend

the doctrine of liberty of will against the extreme predestinarianism of

the monk Gottschalk (Gotteschalchus). The treatise _De divina

praedestinatione_, composed on this occasion, has been preserved, and

from its general tenor one cannot be surprised that the author's

orthodoxy was at once and vehemently suspected. Erigena argues the

question entirely on speculative grounds, and starts with the bold

affirmation that philosophy and religion are fundamentally one and the

same--"Conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem,

conversimque veram religionem esse veram philosophiam." Even more

significant is his handling of authority and reason, to which we shall

presently refer. The work was warmly assailed by Drepanius Florus, canon

of Lyons, and Prudentius, and was condemned by two councils--that of

Valence in 855, and that of Langres in 859. By the former council his

arguments were described as _Pultes Scotorum_ ("Scots porridge") and

_commentum diaboli_ ("an invention of the devil").

Erigena's next work was a Latin translation of Dionysius the Areopagite

(see DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS) undertaken at the request of Charles the

Bald. This also has been preserved, and fragments of a commentary by

Erigena on Dionysius have been discovered in MS. A translation of the

Areopagite's pantheistical writings was not likely to alter the opinion

already formed as to Erigena's orthodoxy. Pope Nicholas I. was offended

that the work had not been submitted for approval before being given to

the world, and ordered Charles to send Erigena to Rome, or at least to

dismiss him from his court. There is no evidence, however, that this

order was attended to.

The latter part of his life is involved in total obscurity. The story

that in 882 he was invited to Oxford by Alfred the Great, that he

laboured there for many years, became abbot at Malmesbury, and was

stabbed to death by his pupils with their "styles," is apparently

without any satisfactory foundation, and doubtless refers to some other

Johannes. Erigena in all probability never left France, and Haureau has

advanced some reasons for fixing the date of his death about 877.

Erigena is the most interesting figure among the middle-age writers. The

freedom of his speculation, and the boldness with which he works out his

logical or dialectical system of the universe, altogether prevent us

from classing him along with the scholastics properly so called. He

marks, indeed, a stage of transition from the older Platonizing

philosophy to the later and more rigid scholasticism. In no sense

whatever can it be affirmed that with Erigena philosophy is in the

service of theology. The above-quoted assertion as to the substantial

identity between philosophy and religion is indeed repeated almost

_totidem verbis_ by many of the later scholastic writers, but its

significance altogether depends upon the selection of one or other term

of the identity as fundamental or primary. Now there is no possibility

of mistaking Erigena's position: to him philosophy or reason is first,

is primitive; authority or religion is secondary, derived. "Auctoritas

siquidem ex vera ratione processit, ratio vero nequaquam ex auctoritate.

Omnis enim auctoritas, quae vera ratione non approbatur, infirma videtur

esse. Vera autem ratio, quum virtutibus suis rata atque immutabilis

munitur, nullius auctoritatis adstipulatione roborari indiget" (_De

divisione naturae_, i. 71). F.D. Maurice, the only historian of note who

declines to ascribe a rationalizing tendency to Erigena, obscures the

question by the manner in which he states it. He asks his readers, after

weighing the evidence advanced, to determine "whether he (Erigena) used

his philosophy to explain away his theology, or to bring out what he

conceived to be the fullest meaning of it." These alternatives seem to

be wrongly put. "Explaining away theology" is something wholly foreign

to the philosophy of that age; and even if we accept the alternative

that Erigena endeavours speculatively to bring out the full meaning of

theology, we are by no means driven to the conclusion that he was

primarily or principally a theologian. He does not start with the datum

of theology as the completed body of truth, requiring only elucidation

and interpretation; his fundamental thought is that of the universe,

nature, [Greek: to pan], or God, as the ultimate unity which works

itself out into the rational system of the world. Man and all that

concerns man are but parts of this system, and are to be explained by

reference to it; for explanation or understanding of a thing is

determination of its place in the universal or all. Religion or

revelation is one element or factor in the divine process, a stage or

phase of the ultimate rational life. The highest faculty of man, reason,

_intellectus_, _intellectualis visio_, is that which is not content with

the individual or partial, but grasps the whole and thereby comprehends

the parts. In this highest effort of reason, which is indeed God

thinking in man, thought and being are at one, the opposition of being

and thought is overcome. When Erigena starts with such propositions, it

is clearly impossible to understand his position and work if we insist

on regarding him as a scholastic, accepting the dogmas of the church as

ultimate data, and endeavouring only to present them in due order and

defend them by argument.

Erigena's great work, _De divisione naturae_, which was condemned by a

council at Sens, by Honorius III. (1225), who described it as

"swarming with worms of heretical perversity," and by Gregory XIII. in

1585, is arranged in five books. The form of exposition is that of

dialogue; the method of reasoning is the syllogistic. The leading

thoughts are the following. _Natura_ is the name for the universal,

the totality of all things, containing in itself being and non-being.

It is the unity of which all special phenomena are manifestations. But

of this nature there are four distinct classes:--(1) that which

creates and is not created; (2) that which is created and creates; (3)

that which is created and does not create; (4) that which neither is

created nor creates. The first is God as the ground or origin of all

things, the last is God as the final end or goal of all things, that

into which the world of created things ultimately returns. The second

and third together compose the created universe, which is the

manifestation of God, God _in processu_, _Theophania_. Thus we

distinguish in the divine system beginning, middle and end; but these

three are in essence one--the difference is only the consequence of

our finite comprehension. We are compelled to envisage this eternal

process under the form of time, to apply temporal distinctions to that

which is extra- or supra-temporal. The universe of created things, as

we have seen, is twofold:--_first_, that which is created and

creates--the primordial ideas, archetypes, immutable relations, divine

acts of will, according to which individual things are formed;

_second_, that which is created and does not create, the world of

individuals, the effects of the primordial causes, without which the

causes have no true being. Created things have no individual or

self-independent existence; they are only in God; and each thing is a

manifestation of the divine, _theophania_, _divina apparitio_.

God alone, the uncreated creator of all, has true being. He is the

true universal, all-containing and incomprehensible. The lower cannot

comprehend the higher, and therefore we must say that the existence of

God is above being, above essence; God is above goodness, above

wisdom, above truth. No finite predicates can be applied to him; his

mode of being cannot be determined by any category. True theology is

negative. Nevertheless the world, as the _theophania_, the revelation

of God, enables us so far to understand the divine essence. We

recognize his being in the being of all things, his wisdom in their

orderly arrangement, his life in their constant motion. Thus God is

for us a Trinity--the Father as substance or being ([Greek: ousia]),

the Son as wisdom ([Greek: dynamis]), the Spirit as life ([Greek:

energeia]). These three are realized in the universe--the Father as

the system of things, the Son as the word, i.e. the realm of ideas,

the Spirit as the life or moving force which introduces individuality

and which ultimately draws back all things into the divine unity. In

man, as the noblest of created things, the Trinity is seen most

perfectly reflected; _intellectus_ ([Greek: nous]), _ratio_ ([Greek:

logos]) and _sensus_ ([Greek: dianoia]) make up the threefold thread

of his being. Not in man alone, however, but in all things, God is to

be regarded as realizing himself, as becoming incarnate.

The infinite essence of God, which may indeed be described as

_nihilum_ (nothing) is that from which all is created, from which all

proceeds or emanates. The first procession or emanation, as above

indicated, is the realm of ideas in the Platonic sense, the word or

wisdom of God. These ideas compose a whole or inseparable unity, but

we are able in a dim way to think of them as a system logically

arranged. Thus the highest idea is that of _goodness_; things are,

only if they are good; being without well-being is naught. _Essence_

participates in goodness--that which is good has being, and is

therefore to be regarded as a species of good. _Life_, again, is a

species of essence, _wisdom_ a species of life, and so on, always

descending from genus to species in a rigorous logical fashion.

The ideas are the eternal causes, which, under the moving influence of

the spirit, manifest themselves in their effects, the individual

created things. Manifestation, however, is part of the being or

essence of the causes, that is to say, if we interpret the expression,

God of necessity manifests himself in the world and is not without the

world. Further, as the causes are eternal, timeless, so creation is

eternal, timeless. The Mosaic account, then, is to be looked upon

merely as a mode in which is faintly shadowed forth what is above

finite comprehension. It is altogether allegorical, and requires to be

interpreted. Paradise and the Fall have no local or temporal being.

Man was originally sinless and without distinction of sex. Only after

the introduction of sin did man lose his spiritual body, and acquire

the animal nature with its distinction of sex. Woman is the

impersonation of man's sensuous and fallen nature; on the final return

to the divine unity, distinction of sex will vanish, and the spiritual

body will be regained.

The most remarkable and at the same time the most obscure portion of

the work is that in which the final return to God is handled.

Naturally sin is a necessary preliminary to this redemption, and

Erigena has the greatest difficulty in accounting for the fact of sin.

If God is true being, then sin can have no substantive existence; it

cannot be said that God knows of sin, for to God knowing and being are

one. In the universe of things, _as_ a universe, there can be no sin;

there must be perfect harmony. Sin, in fact, results from the will of

the individual who falsely represents something as good which is not

so. This misdirected will is punished by finding that the objects

after which it thirsts are in truth vanity and emptiness. Hell is not

to be regarded as having local existence; it is the inner state of the

sinful will. As the object of punishment is not the will or the

individual himself, but the misdirection of the will, so the result of

punishment is the final purification and redemption of all. Even the

devils shall be saved. All, however, are not saved at once; the stages

of the return to the final unity, corresponding to the stages in the

creative process, are numerous, and are passed through slowly. The

ultimate goal is _deificatio_, _theosis_ or resumption into the divine

being, when the individual soul is raised to a full knowledge of God,

and where knowing and being are one. After all have been restored to

the divine unity, there is no further creation. The ultimate unity is

that which neither is created nor creates.

EDITIONS.--There is a complete edition of Erigena's works in J.P.

Migne's _Patrologiae cursus completus_ (vol. cxxii.), edited by H.J.

Floss (Paris, 1853). The _De divina praedestinatione_ was published in

Gilbert Mauguin's _Veterum auctorum qui nono saeculo de

praedestinatione et gratia scripserunt opera et fragmenta_ (Paris,

1650). The commentary ("Expositiones") on Dionysius' _Hierarchiae

caelestes_ appeared in the _Appendix ad opera edita ab A. Maio_ (ed.

J. Cozza, Rome, 1871). Of the _De divisione naturae_, editions have

been published by Thomas Gale (Oxford, 1681); C.B. Schluter (Munster,

1838); and in Floss's _Opera omnia_; there is a German translation by

Ludwig Noack, _Johannes Scotus Erigena uber die Eintheilung der Natur_

(3 vols., 1874-1876). Erigena was also the author of some poems edited

by L. Traube in _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Poetae Latini aevi

Carolini_, iii. (1896). A commentary on the _Opuscula sacra_ of

Boetius is attributed to him and edited by E.K. Rand (1906).

Monographs on Erigena's life and works are numerous; see St Rene

Taillandier, _Scot Erigene et la philosophie scholastique_ (1843); T.

Christlieb, _Leben u. Lehre des Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (Gotha,

1860); J.N. Huber, _Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (Munich, 1861); W.

Kaulich, _Das speculative System des Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (Prague,

1860); A. Stockl, _De Joh. Scoto Erigena_ (1867); L. Noack, _Uber

Leben und Schriften des Joh. Scotus Erigena: die Wissenschaft und

Bildung seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1876); R.L. Poole, _Medieval Thought_

(1884), and article in _Dictionary of National Biography_; T.

Wotschke, _Fichte und Erigena_ (Halle, 1896); M. Baumgartner in Wetzer

and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, x. (1897); Alice Gardner's _Studies in

John the Scot_ (1900); J. Draseke, _Joh. Scotus Erigena und seine

Gewahrsmanner_ (Leipzig, 1902); S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck's

_Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie_, xviii. (1906); J.E.

Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1906), pp. 491-495. See also

the general works on scholastic philosophy, especially Haureau, Stockl

and Kaulich. An admirable resume is given by F.D. Maurice, _Medieval

Phil._ pp. 45-79. (R. Ad.; J. M. M.)

ERIGONE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Icarius, the hero of the Attic

deme Icaria. Her father, who had been taught by Dionysus to make wine,

gave some to some shepherds, who became intoxicated. Their companions,

thinking they had been poisoned, killed Icarius and buried him under a

tree on Mount Hymettus (or threw his body into a well). Erigone, guided

by her faithful dog Maera, found his grave, and hanged herself on the

tree. Dionysus sent a plague on the land, and all the maidens of Athens,

in a fit of madness, hanged themselves like Erigone. Icarius, Erigone

and Maera were set among the stars as Bootes (or Arcturus), Virgo and

Procyon. The festival called Aeora (the "swing") was subsequently

instituted to propitiate Icarius and Erigone. Various small images (in

Lat. _oscilla_) were suspended on trees and swung backwards and

forwards, and offerings of fruit were made (Hyginus, _Fab._ 130, _Poet.

astron._ ii. 4; Apollodorus iii. 14). The story was probably intended to

explain the origin of these _oscilla_, by which Dionysus, as god of

trees (Dendrites), was propitiated, and the baneful influence of the

dog-star averted (see also OSCILLA).

ERIN, an ancient name for Ireland. The oldest form of the word is Eriu,

of which Erinn is the dative case. Eriu was itself almost certainly a

contraction from a still more primitive form _Iberiu_ or _Iveriu_; for

when the name of the island was written in ancient Greek it appeared as

[Greek: Iouernia] (Ivernia), and in Latin as _Iberio_, _Hiberio_ or

_Hibernia_, the first syllable of the word Eriu being thus represented

in the classical languages by two distinct vowel sounds separated by _b_

or _v_. Of the Latin variants, _Iberio_ is the form found in the most

ancient Irish MSS., such as the _Confession_ of St Patrick, and the same

saint's _Epistle to Coroticus_. Further evidence to the same effect is

found in the fact that the ancient Breton and Welsh names for Ireland

were Ywerddon or Iverdon. In later Gaelic literature the primitive form

Eriu became the dissyllable Eire; hence the Norsemen called the island

the land of Eire, i.e. Ireland, the latter word being originally

pronounced in three syllables. (See IRELAND: _Notices of Ireland in

Greek and Roman writers_.) Nothing is known as to the meaning of the

word in any of its forms, and Whitley Stokes's suggestion that it may

have been connected with the Sanskrit _avara_, meaning "western," is

admittedly no more than conjecture. There was, indeed, a native Irish

legend, worthless from the standpoint of etymology, to account for the

origin of the name. According to this myth there were three kings of the

Dedannans reigning in Ireland at the coming of the Milesians, named

MacColl, MacKecht and MacGrena. The wife of the first was Eire, and from

her the name of the country was derived. Curiously, Ireland in ancient

Erse poetry was often called "Fodla" or "Bauba," and these were the

wives of the other two kings in the legend.

ERINNA, Greek poet, contemporary and friend of Sappho, a native of

Rhodes or the adjacent island of Telos, flourished about 600 (according

to Eusebius, 350 B.C.). Although she died at the early age of nineteen,

her poems were among the most famous of her time and considered to rank

with those of Homer. Of her best-known poem, [Greek: Elakate] (the

_Distaff_), written in a mixture of Aeolic and Doric, which contained

300 hexameter lines, only 4 lines are now extant. Three epigrams in the

Palatine anthology, also ascribed to her, probably belong to a later

date.

The fragments have been edited (with those of Alcaeus) by J.

Pellegrino (1894).

ERINYES (Lat. _Furiae_), in Greek mythology, the avenging deities,

properly the angry goddesses or goddesses of the curse pronounced upon

evil-doers. According to Hesiod (_Theog._ 185) they were the daughters

of Earth, and sprang from the blood of the mutilated Uranus; in

Aeschylus (_Eum._ 321) they are the daughters of Night, in Sophocles

(_O.C._ 40) of Darkness and Earth. Sometimes one Erinys is mentioned,

sometimes several; Euripides first spoke of them as three in number, to

whom later Alexandrian writers gave the names Alecto (unceasing in

anger), Tisiphone (avenger of murder), Megaera (jealous). Their home is

the world below, whence they ascend to earth to pursue the wicked. They

punish all offences against the laws of human society, such as perjury,

violation of the rites of hospitality, and, above all, the murder of

relations. But they are not without benevolent and beneficent

attributes. When the sinner has expiated his crime they are ready to

forgive. Thus, their persecution of Orestes ceases after his acquittal

by the Areopagus. It is said that on this occasion they were first

called Eumenides ("the kindly"), a euphemistic variant of their real

name. At Athens, however, where they had a sanctuary at the foot of the

Areopagus hill and a sacred grove at Colonus, their regular name was

Semnae (venerable). Black sheep were sacrificed to them during the night

by the light of torches. A festival was held in their honour every year,

superintended by a special priesthood, at which the offerings consisted

of milk and honey mixed with water, but no wine. In Aeschylus, the

Erinyes are represented as awful, Gorgon-like women, wearing long black

robes, with snaky locks, bloodshot eyes and claw-like nails. Later, they

are winged maidens of serious aspect, in the garb of huntresses, with

snakes or torches in their hair, carrying scourges, torches or sickles.

The identification of Erinyes with Sanskrit Saranyu, the swift-speeding

storm cloud, is rejected by modern etymologists; according to M. Breal,

the Erinyes are the personification of the formula of imprecation

([Greek: ara]), while E. Rohde sees in them the spirits of the dead, the

angry souls of murdered men.

See C.O. Muller, _Dissertations on the Eumenides of Aeschylus_, (Eng.

tr., 1835); A. Rosenberg, _Die Erinyen_ (1874); J.E. Harrison,

_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_ (1903); and _Journal of

Hellenic Studies_, xix. p. 205, according to whom the Erinyes were

primarily local ancestral ghosts, potent for good or evil after death,

earth genii, originally conceived as embodied in the form of snakes,

whose primitive haunt and sanctuary was the omphalos at Delphi; E.

Rohde, _Psyche_ (1903); A. Rapp in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_,

and J.A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_,

s.v. FURIAE.

ERIPHYLE, in Greek mythology, sister of Adrastus and wife of Amphiaraus.

Having been bribed by Polyneices with the necklace of Harmonia, she

persuaded her husband to take part in the expedition of the Seven

against Thebes, although he knew it would prove fatal to him. Before

setting out, the seer charged his sons to slay their mother as soon as

they heard of his death. The attack on Thebes was repulsed, and during

the flight the earth opened and swallowed up Amphiaraus together with

his chariot. His son Alcmaeon, as he had been bidden, slew his mother,

and was driven from place to place by the Erinyes, seeking purification

and a new home (Apollodorus iii. 6. 7).

ERIS, in Greek mythology, a sister of the war-god Ares (Homer, _Iliad_,

iv. 440), and in the Hesiodic theogony (225) a daughter of Night. In the

later legends of the Trojan War, Eris, not having been invited to the

marriage festival of Peleus and Thetis, flings a golden apple (the

"apple of discord") among the guests, to be given to the most beautiful.

The claims of the three deities Hera, Aphrodite and Athena are decided

by Paris in favour of Aphrodite, who as a reward assists him to gain

possession of Helen (Hyginus, _Fab._ 92; Lucian, _Charidemus_, 17).

Hesiod also mentions (_W. and D._ 24) a beneficent Eris, the

personification of honourable rivalry. In Virgil (_Aeneid_, viii. 702)

and other Roman poets Eris is represented by Discordia.

ERITH, an urban district in the north-western parliamentary division of

Kent, England, 14 m. E. by S. of London, on the South Eastern & Chatham

railway. Pop. (1891) 13,414; (1901) 25,296. It lies on the south bank of

the Thames and extends up the hills above the shore, many villas having

been erected on the higher ground. The park of a former seat, Belvedere,

was thus built over (c. 1860), and the mansion became a home for

disabled seamen. The church of St John the Baptist, though largely

altered by modern restoration, retains Early English to Perpendicular

portions, and some early monuments and brasses. Erith has large

engineering and gun factories, and in the neighbourhood are gunpowder,

oil, glue and manure works. The southern outfall works of the London

main drainage system are at Crossness in the neighbouring lowland called

Plumstead Marshes. Erith is the headquarters of several yacht clubs.

Erith, the name of which is commonly derived from A.S. _Aerra-hythe_ (old

haven), was anciently a borough, and was granted a market and fairs in

1313. Down to the close of the 17th century it was of some importance as

a naval station.

ERITREA, an Italian colony on the African coast of the Red Sea. It

extends from Ras Kasar, a cape 110 m. S. of Suakin, in 18 deg. 2' N., as

far as Ras Dumeira (12 deg. 42' N.), in the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, a

coast-line of about 650 m. The colony is bounded inland by the

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia and French Somaliland. It consists of

the coast lands lying between the capes named and of part of the

northern portion of the Abyssinian plateau. The total area is about

60,000 sq. m. The population is approximately 450,000, of which,

exclusive of soldiers, not more than 3000 are whites.

The land frontier starting from Ras Kasar runs in a south-westerly

direction until in about 14 deg. 15' N., 36 deg. 35' E. it reaches the

river Setit, some distance above the junction of that stream with the

Atbara. This, the farthest point inland, is 198 m. S.W. of Massawa. The

frontier now turns east, following for a short distance the course of

the river Setit; thence it strikes north-easterly to the Mareb, and from

38 deg. E. follows that river and its tributaries the Belesa and Muna,

until within 42 m. of the sea directly south of Annesley Bay. At this

point the frontier turns south and east, crossing the Afar or Danakil

country at a distance of 60 kilometres (37.28 m.) from the coast-line.

About 12 deg. 20' N. the French possessions in Somaliland are reached.

Here the frontier turns N.E. and so continues until the coast of the Red

Sea is again reached at a point south of the town of Raheita. In the

southern part of the colony are small sultanates, such as those of Aussa

and Raheita, which are under Italian protection. The Dahlak archipelago

and other groups of islands along the coast belong to Eritrea.

_Physical Features._--The coast-line is of coral formation and is, in

the neighbourhood of Massawa, thickly studded with small islands. The

chief indentations are Annesley Bay, immediately south of Massawa, and

Assab Bay in the south. The colony consists of two widely differing

regions. The northern division is part of the Abyssinian highlands.

The southern division, part of the Afar or Danakil country, includes

all the territory of the colony south of Annesley Bay. These two

regions are connected by a narrow strip of land behind Annesley Bay,

where the Abyssinian hills approach close to the sea. From this bay

the coast-line trends S.E. so that at Tajura Bay the distance between

the Abyssinian hills and the sea is over 200 m. The Afar country is

part of the East African rift-valley, and in the southern parts of the

valley its surface is diversified by ranges of hills, frequently

volcanic, and by lakes. The plains, however, extend over large areas,

they are generally arid and are often covered with mimosa trees which

form a kind of jungle called by the natives _khala_. The torrents

which descend from the Abyssinian plateau usually fail to reach the

sea. They are mostly bordered by dense vegetation; in the dry season

water is found in pools in the river beds or can be obtained by

digging. The principal rivers enter and are lost in one or other of

two salt plains or basins, that of Asali in the north and that of

Aussa in the south. The Hawash flows through the Aussa country in a

N.E. direction, but is lost in lakes Abbebad and Aussa (see

ABYSSINIA). The Raguali and other rivers drain into the Asali basin.

This basin, like that of Aussa, is in places 200 ft. below sea-level.

On the west the Asali basin reaches to the Abyssinian foot-hills; in

its southern part is the small lake Alelbad. The eastern edge of the

basin is formed by a ridge of gypsum and on its margin grow palms. In

parts the salt lies thick on the plain, which then has the appearance

of a lake frozen over. South of Lake Alelbad is a volcano called

Artali or Erta-ale ("the smoky"), and farther to the S.E., in about 13

deg. 15' N., is the peak of Afdera, which was in eruption in June

1907. The hills, 1000 to 4000 ft. in height, which run more or less

parallel to and a few miles from the coast, include the volcano of

Dubbi (reported active in 1861), some 30 m. S. of the port of Edd

(Eddi). In 14 deg. 52' N., 39 deg. 53' E. and near the northern end of

the zone of depression the volcano of Alid (2985 ft.) rises from the

trough. Its chief crest forms an elongated ring and encloses a crater

over half a mile in diameter and with walls 350 ft. high. North and

south of Alid extends a vast lava field. Dubbi and Alid are in Italian

territory; the greater part of Afar belongs to Abyssinia.

At Annesley Bay the narrow coast plain is succeeded by foothills

separated by small valleys through which flow innumerable streams.

From these hills the ascent to the plateau which constitutes northern

Eritrea is very steep. This tableland, which has a general elevation

of about 6500 ft., is fairly fertile despite a desert region--Sheb--to

the S.E. of Keren. It is characterized by rich, well-watered valleys,

verdant plains and flat-topped hills with steep sides, running in

ranges or isolated. The highest hills in Eritrean territory rise to

about 10,000 ft. The plateau is known by various names, the region

directly west of Massawa being called Hamasen. To the west and north

the plateau sinks in terraces to the plains of the Sudan, and eastward

falls more abruptly to the Red Sea, the coast plain, known as the

Samhar, consisting of sandy country covered with mimosa and, along the

khors, with a somewhat richer vegetation.

The colony contains no navigable streams. For a short distance the

Setit (known in its upper course as the Takazze), a tributary of the

Atbara, forms the frontier, as does also in its upper course the Gash

or Mareb (see ABYSSINIA). The Mareb, often dry in summer, in the

floods is a large and impassable river. Both the Setit and Mareb have

a general westerly course across the Abyssinian plateau. The Baraka

(otherwise Barka) and Anseba rise in the Hamasen plateau near Asmara

within a short distance of each other. The Baraka flows west and then

north; the Anseba, which has a more easterly course, also flows

northward and joins the Baraka a little N. of 17 deg. N. A few miles

below the confluence the Baraka leaves Italian territory. It is (as is

the Anseba) an intermittent stream. After heavy rain it discharges

some of its water into the Red Sea north of Tokar. The whole of the

hill country north of Asmara belongs to the drainage area of the

Baraka or Anseba. Of the numerous streams which, north of the Danakil

country, run direct from the hills to the Red Sea, the Hadas may be

mentioned, as along the valley of that stream is one of the most

frequented routes to the tableland. The Hadas, in time of flood,

reaches the ocean near Adulis in Annesley Bay.

_Climate._--The climate in different parts of the colony varies

greatly. Three distinct climatic zones are found:--(1) that of the

coastlands, including altitudes up to 1650 ft., (2) that of the

escarpments and valleys, and (3) that of the high plateau and alpine

summits. In the coast zone the heat and humidity are excessive during

most of the year, June, September and October being the hottest

months. Rains occur between November and April, during which time the

temperature is lower. In this zone malarial fevers prevail in winter.

The heat is greatest at Massawa, where the mean temperature averages

88 deg. F., but where, in summer, the thermometer often rises to 120

deg. F. in the shade. In the second zone the climate is more temperate

and there is considerable variation in temperature owing to nocturnal

radiation. This zone falls within the regime of the summer monsoon

rains, while those districts adjoining the coast zone enjoy also

winter rains. August is the most rainy and May the hottest month. On

the high plateau, i.e. the third zone, the climate is generally

moderately cool. Slight rain falls in the spring and abundant monsoon

rains from June to September. The heat is greatest in the dry season,

November to April. Above 8500 ft. the climate becomes sub-alpine in

character.

_Flora and Fauna._--In the low country the flora differs little from

that of tropical Africa generally, whilst on the plateau the

vegetation is characteristic of the temperate zone. The olive tree

grows on the high plateau and covers the flanks of the hills to within

3000 ft. of sea-level. The sycamore-fig tree grows to enormous

proportions in parts of the plateau. Lower down durra, maize and

bultuc grow in profusion. In the northern part of the colony,

especially along the Khor Baraka, the dom palm flourishes. The fauna

includes, in the low country, the lion, panther, elephant, camel, and

antelope of numerous species. On the plateau the fauna is that of

Abyssinia (q.v.).

_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of the plains and foothills are for

the most part semi-nomad shepherds, living on durra and milk. In the

north these people are largely of Arab or Hamitic stock, such as the

Beni-Amer, but include various negro tribes. Afar and Somali form the

population of the southern regions. The inhabitants of the plateau are

Abyssinians. The nomads are Mussulmans and are, as a rule, docile and

pacific, though the Danakils are given to occasional raiding. The

Abyssinians are more warlike, but they have settled down under Italian

rule. Among the native industries are mat-weaving, cotton-weaving,

silver-working and rudimentary iron and leather working. (See AFARS;

SOMALILAND and ABYSSINIA.)

_Towns._--The principal places on the coast are Massawa (q.v.), pop.

about 10,000, the chief seaport of the colony, Assab, chief town of

the Danakil region, to which converges the trade from Abyssinia across

the Aussa country, and Zula (q.v.), identified with the ancient

Adulis. The chief town in the interior is Asmara (q.v.), the capital

of the colony and under the Abyssinians capital of the province of

Hamasen, and favourite headquarters of Ras Alula (see below and also

ABYSSINIA). It is situated 7800 ft. above the sea, and has something

of the aspect of a European town. Keren, 50 m. N.W. of Asmara, is the

centre for a district (Bogos) fertilized by the upper course of the

Anseba; Agordat, on the river Baraka, on the road from Keren to

Kassala, is the centre of the Beni-Amer, Algheden and Sabderat tribes;

Mogolo, on the lower Mareb, is the rendezvous of the Baria and Baza

tribes. Towards Abyssinia the chief towns are Saganeiti (capital of

the Okule-Kusai province), Godofelassi and Adi-Ugri, the two latter

situated in the fertile plain of the Serae; Adiquala, on the edge of

the Mareb gorge; and Arrasa, the centre of the districts constituting

the province of Deki-Tesfa.

_Agriculture and Trade._--The nomads of the plains possess large herds

of cattle and camels. The low country is almost entirely pastoral and

unsuited for the cultivation of crops. On the other hand almost all

European cereals flourish in the intermediate zone and on the high

plateau, and the Abyssinian is a good agriculturist and understands

irrigation. Numbers of emigrants from Italy possess farms on the

plateau. Experiments in the cultivation of coffee, tobacco and cotton

have given good results in the intermediate zone. Besides camels and

oxen, sheep and goats are numerous, and meat, hides and butter are

articles of local trade. Hides are the principal export (about L50,000

a year). Wax, gum, coffee and ivory are also exported. Pearl fishing

is carried on at Massawa and the Dahlak islands. The annual value of

the fisheries is about L40,000 (pearls L10,000, mother of pearl

L30,000). Gold mines are worked near Asmara. Salt, obtained from the

salt lakes in the Aussa and Danakil countries, is a valuable article

of commerce. Cotton goods are the chief imports. There is a little

trade with northern Abyssinia, but it is undeveloped. For the five

years 1901-1905 the average value of the external trade was L456,000

per annum. The imports more than doubled the exports.

_Communications._--A railway, 65 m. long, connects Massawa with

Asmara. An extension of the line is planned from Asmara to Sabderat

and Kassala. The whole territory is crossed by camel and mule paths

between the sea and the high plateau, and between the various centres

of population. Every valley that brings water to the Red Sea has a

route leading to the high plateau. The great arteries, however, number

three, which, starting from Massawa by way of Asmara, run, two to

Abyssinia, and one to Kassala and Khartum. They are all more or less

practicable for carts, and are flanked by a good telegraph line as

long as they lie in Italian territory. There are also two caravan

routes from Assab Bay, across the Danakil country to southern

Abyssinia. The northern leads by a comparatively easy ascent to Yejju,

the more southern follows the valley of the Hawash. A telegraph line

500 m. long connects Massawa with Adis Ababa via Asmara. Massawa is

also telegraphically connected with the outside world by a cable to

Perim via Assab. There is regular steamship communication with Italy.

_Administration._--Eritrea is administered by a civil governor

responsible to the ministry of foreign affairs at Rome. It is divided

into six provinces, each governed by a regional commissioner. Some

tracts of frontier territory are detached from the various regions and

entrusted to political residents, as, for instance, on the Sudan

frontier and also on the Abyssinian boundary, where strict

surveillance is necessary to repress raiding incursions from Tigre,

and where the chief intelligence department is established. The six

regions or principal provinces are:--Asmara, which includes Hamasen

and other small districts; Keren, which comprises the high territories

to the north of Asmara, i.e. the Bogos country; Massawa, extending

over all the tribes between the high plateau and the sea from the

Hababs to the Danakil; Assab, which extends from Edd to Raheita;

Okule-Kusai, the plateau country S.E. of Asmara; Serae, including

Deki-Tesfa, the country S.W. of Asmara. The regional commissioners and

the political residents act either by means of the village headmen

(_Shum_ or _Chicca_), by the chiefs of districts in the few localities

where villages are still organized in districts, or by the headmen of

tribes, and by the councils of the elders wherever these remain.

Revenue is derived from customs duties, direct taxation and tribute

paid by the nomad tribes. The local revenue, which for the period

1897-1907 was about L100,000 a year, is supplemented by grants from

Italy, the total cost of the administration being about L400,000

yearly. Nearly half the expenditure is on the military force

maintained.

_Justice._--Civil justice for natives is administered, in the first

instance, by the headmen of villages, provinces, tribes, or by

councils of notables (_Shumagalle_); in appeal, by the residents and

regional tribunals, and, in the last instance, by the colonial court

of appeal. Europeans are entirely under Italian jurisdiction. Penal

justice is administered by Italian judges only. An administrative

tribunal settles, without appeal, questions of tribute, disputes

concerning family, village or tribal landmarks, as well as suits

involving the colonial government. The civil laws for the natives are

those established by local usage. Europeans are answerable to the

Italian civil code. Penal laws are the same as in Italy, except where

modified by local usages. Appeal to the Rome court of cassation is

admitted against all penal and civil sentences.

_Defence._--Defence is entrusted to a corps of colonial troops, partly

Italian and partly native; to a militia (_milizia mobile_) formed by

natives who have already served in the colonial corps; and to the

_chitet_ or general levy which, in time of war, places all male

able-bodied inhabitants under arms. The regional commissioners and

political residents have at their disposal some hundreds of irregular

paid soldiers under native chiefs. In war time these irregulars form

part of the colonial corps, but in time of peace serve as frontier

police. The colonial corps, about 5000 strong, garrisons the chief

places of strategic importance, such as Asmara, Keren and Saganeiti.

The irregular troops, on foot, or mounted on camels, number about 1000

men. The militia consists of 3500 men of all arms, and is intended in

time of war to reinforce the various divisions of the colonial corps.

The _chitet_ yields between 3000 and 4000 men, to be employed on the

lines of communication or in caravan service. All these troops are

intended to ward off a first attack, so as to allow time for the

arrival of reinforcements from Italy. The customs and political

surveillance along the coast is entrusted, afloat, to the Massawa

naval station, and, ashore, to a coastguard company 400 strong

stationed at Meder, with detachments at Assab, Massawa, Raheita, Edd

and Taclai.

_History._--Traces of the ancient Eritrean civilization are scarce.

During the prosperous periods of ancient Egypt, Egyptian squadrons

asserted their rule over the west Red Sea coast, and under the Ptolemies

the port of Golden Berenice (Adulis?) was an Egyptian fortress,

afterwards abandoned. During the early years of the Roman empire,

Eritrea formed part of an important independent state--that of the

Axumites (Assamites). At the end of the reign of Nero, and perhaps even

earlier, the king of the Axumites ruled over the Red Sea coast from

Suakin to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and traded constantly with Egypt.

This potentate called himself "king of kings," commanded an army and a

fleet, coined money, adopted Greek as the official language, and lived

on good terms with the Roman empire. The Axumites belonged originally to

the Hamitic race, but the immigration of the Himyaritic tribes of

southern Arabia speedily imposed a new language and civilization.

Therefore the ancient Abyssinian language, Geez, and its living

dialects, Amharic and Tigrina, are Semitic, although modified by the

influence of the old Hamitic Agau or Agao. Adulis (Adovlis), slightly to

the north of Zula (q.v.), was the chief Axumite port. From Adulis

started the main road, which led across the high plateau to the capital

Axomis (Axum). Along the road are still to be seen vestiges of cities

and inscribed monuments, such as the Himyaritic inscriptions on the high

plateau of Kohait, the six obelisks with a Saban inscription at Toconda,

and an obelisk with an inscription at Amba Sait. Other monuments exist

elsewhere, as well as coins of the Axumite period with Greek and

Ethiopian inscriptions. After the rise of the Ethiopian empire the

history of Eritrea is bound up with that of Ethiopia, but not so

entirely as to be completely fused. The documents of the Portuguese

expedition of the 16th century and other Ethiopian records show that all

the country north of the Mareb enjoyed relative autonomy under a vassal

of the Ethiopian emperor.

Michael, counsellor of Solomon, who was king of the country north of the

Mareb, usurped the throne of Solomon during the reign of the Emperor

Atzie Jasu II. (1729-1753), and, after proclaiming himself ras of Tigre

and "protector of the empire," ceded the North Mareb country to an enemy

of the rightful dynasty. Hence a long struggle between the dispossessed

family and the occupants of the North Mareb throne. The coast regions

had meantime passed from the control of the Abyssinians. In the 16th

century the Turks made themselves masters of Zula, Massawa, &c., and

these places were never recovered by the Abyssinians. In 1865 Massawa

and the neighbouring coast was acquired by Egypt, the khedive Ismail

entertaining projects for connecting the port by railway with the Nile.

The Egyptians took advantage of civil war in Abyssinia to seize Keren

and the Bogos country in 1872[1], an action against which the negus

Johannes (King John), newly come to the throne, did not at the time

protest. In 1875 and 1876 the Egyptians, who sought to increase their

conquests, were defeated by the Abyssinians at Gundet and Gura. Walad

Michael, the hereditary ruler of Bogos, fought as ally of King John at

Gundet and of the Egyptians at Gura. For two years Walad Michael

continued to harass the border, but in December 1878 he submitted to

King John, by whose orders he was (Sept. 1879) imprisoned upon an amba,

or flat-topped mountain, whence he only succeeded in escaping in 1890.

In 1879 his territory was given by King John to Ras Alula, who retained

it until, in August 1889, the Italians occupied Asmara (see ABYSSINIA:

_History_).

An Egyptian garrison remained at Keren in the Bogos country until 1884,

when in consequence of the revolt of the Mahdi it was withdrawn, Bogos

being occupied by Abyssinia on the 12th of September of that year. On

the 5th of February 1885 an Italian force, with the approval of Great

Britain, occupied Massawa, the Egyptian garrison returning to Egypt.

This occupation led to wars with Abyssinia and finally to the

establishment of the colony in its present limits. The history of the

Italian-Abyssinian relations is fully told in the articles ITALY and

ABYSSINIA (history sections).

It was not, however, at Massawa that Italy first obtained a foothold in

eastern Africa. The completion of the Suez Canal led Italy as well as

Great Britain and France to seek territorial rights on the Red Sea

coasts. The purchase of Assab and the neighbouring region for L1880,

from the sultan Berehan of Raheita for use as a coaling station by the

Italian Rubattino Steamship Company, in March 1870, formed the nucleus

of Italy's colonial possessions. This purchase was protested against by

Egypt, Turkey and Great Britain; the last named power being willing to

recognize an Italian commercial settlement, but nothing more. (The

Indian government viewed the establishment of the Italians on the new

highway to the East with a good deal of ill-humour.) Eventually, the

British opposition being overcome and that of Egypt and Turkey

disregarded, Assab, by a decree of the 5th of July 1882, was declared an

Italian colony. Between 1883 and 1888 various treaties were concluded

with the sultan of Aussa ceding the Danakil coast to Italy and

recognizing an Italian protectorate over the whole of his

country--through which passes the trade route from Assab Bay to Shoa.

On the 1st of January 1890 the various Italian possessions on the coast

of the Red Sea were united by royal decree into one province under the

title of the Colony of Eritrea--so named after the Erythraeum Mare of

the Romans. At first the government of the colony was purely military,

but after the defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at Adowa, the

administration was placed upon a civil basis (1898-1900). The frontiers

were further defined by a French-Italian convention (24th of January

1900) fixing the frontier between French Somaliland and the Italian

possessions at Raheita, and also by various agreements with Great

Britain and Abyssinia. A tripartite agreement between Italy, Abyssinia

and Great Britain, dated the 15th of May 1902, placed the territory of

the Kanama tribe, on the north bank of the Setit, within Eritrea. A

convention of the 16th of May 1908 settled the Abyssinian-Eritrean

frontier in the Afar country, the boundary being fixed at 60 kilometres

from the coast. The task of reconstructing the administration on a civil

basis and of developing the commerce of the colony was entrusted to

Signor F. Martini, who was governor for nine years (1898-1906). Under

civil rule the colony made steady though somewhat slow progress.

AUTHORITIES.--See B. Melli, _La Colonia Eritrea dalle sue origini al

anno 1901_ (Parma, 1901); G.B. Penne, _Per l'Italia Africana. Studio

critico_ (Rome, 1906); R. Perini, _Di qua dal Mareb_ (Florence, 1905),

a monograph on the Asmara zone; F. Martini, _Nell' Africa Italiana_

(3rd ed., Milan, 1891); A.B. Wylde, _Modern Abyssinia_, chaps. v.-ix.

(London, 1901); E.D. Schoenfeld, _Erythraa und der agyptische Sudan_,

chaps. i.-xii. (Berlin, 1904); Luigi Chiala, _La Spedizione di

Massana_ (Turin, 1888); _Abyssinian Green Books_ published at

intervals in 1895 and 1896, covering the period from 1870 to the end

of the Italo-Abyssinian War; Vico Mantegazza, _La Guerra in Africa_

(Florence, 1896); General Baratieri, _Memorie d'Africa_ (Rome, 1898);

C. de la Jonquiere, _Les Italiens en Erythree_ (Paris, 1897); G.F.H.

Berkeley, _The Campaign of Adowa_ (London, 1902). For orography and

geology see an article by P. Verri in _Boll. Soc. geog. italiana_,

1909, and for climate an article in _Rivista coloniale_ (1906), by A.

Tancredi. A. Allori compiled a _Piccolo Dizionario eritreo,

italiano-arabo-amarico_ (Milan, 1895).

For Afar consult W. Munzinger, "A Journey through the Afar Country" in

_Journ. Royal Geog. Soc._ for 1869; V. Bottego, "Nella Terra dei

Danakil," in _Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana_, 1892; Count C. Rossini, "Al

Ragali" in _L'Espl. Comm._ of Milan, 1903-1904; and articles by G.

Dainelli and O. Marinelli in the _Riv. Geog. Italiana_ of Florence for

1906-1908, dealing with the volcanic regions.

Bibliographies will be found in G. Fumagalli's _Bibliografia Etiopica_

(Milan, 1893) and in the _Riv. Geog. Italiana_ for 1907.