These songs are found among the people of every country; and these
effusions were the true poetry of the heart, which kept alive their
social feelings. The people had even the greater works brought down for
them to a diminutive size; the lays of minstrelsy were usually fragments
of the metrical chronicles, or a disjointed tale from some romance;[6]
such as the popular Fabliaux, which form the amusing collection of Le
Grand.
These proverbs and these fables, these songs and these tales, all these
were a library without books, till the day arrived when the people had
books of their own, open to their comprehension, and responding to their
sympathies. That this traditional literature was handed down from
generation to generation appears from the circumstance, that hardly had
the printing-press been in use when a multitude of "the people's books"
spread through Europe their rude instruction or their national humour.
They were even rendered more attractive by the expressive woodcuts which
palpably appealed to a sense which required no "cunning" to comprehend.
Their piety and their terror were long excited by that variety of Satan
and his devils, which were exhibited to their appalled imaginations--the
the mouth of hell gaping wide, and the crowd of the damned driven in by
the flaming pitchforks. "The Calendar of Shepherds," originally a
translation from the French, was a popular handbook, and rich were its
contents--a perpetual almanac, the saints' days, with the signs of the
zodiac, a receptacle of domestic receipts, all the wisdom of proverbs,
and all the mysteries of astrology, divinity, politics, and geography,
mingled in verse and prose. It was the encyclopaedia for the poor man,
and even for some of his betters.
The courtly favourites of a former age descended from the oriel window
to the cottage-lattice; perpetuated in our "chap-books," sold on the
stalls of fairs, and mixed with the wares of "the chapman," they became
the books of the people. "The Gestes" of Guy of Warwick and Sir Bevis
of Hampton, and other fabulous heroes of chivalry, have been recognised
in their humble disguise of the "Tom Thumb," and "Tom Hickathrift," and
"Jack the Giant-Killer" of the people.
In France their "bibliotheque bleue," books now in the shape of
pamphlets, deriving their name from the colour of their wrappers,
preserves the remains of the fugitive literature of the people; and in
Italy to this day several of the old romances of chivalry are cut down
to a single paul's purchase, and delight the humble buyers.[7] Guerin
Meschino, of native origin, still retains his popularity. In Germany
some patriotic antiquaries have delighted to collect this household
literature of the illiterate. The Germans, who, more than any other
nation, seem to have cherished the hallowed feelings of the homestead,
have a term to designate this class of literature; they call these
volumes _Volksbuecher_, or "the people's books."
There existed a more intimate intercourse between the vernacular writers
of Germany and our own than appears yet to have been investigated. "The
Merry Jests of Howleglas," most delectable to the people from their
grossness and their humour, is of German origin; and it has been
recently discovered that "The History of Friar Rush," which perplexed
the researches of Ritson, is a literal prose version of a German poem,
printed in 1587.[8] "Reynard the Fox"--a most amusing Aesopian
history--an exquisite satire on the vices of the clergy, the devices of
courtiers, and not sparing majesty itself--an intelligible manual of
profound Machiavelism, displaying the trickery of circumventing and
supplanting, and parrying off opponents by sleights of wit--was
translated by Caxton from the Dutch.[9]
This political fiction has been traced in several languages to an
earlier period than the thirteenth century. The learned Germans hold it
to be a complete picture of the feudal manners; and Heineccius, one of
the most able jurists, declares that it has often assisted him in
clearing up the jurisprudence of Germany, and that for the genius of the
writer the volume deserves to be ranked with the classics of antiquity.
The writer probably had good reasons for concealing his name, but his
intimacy with a Court-life is apparent. He has dexterously described the
wiles of Reynard, whose cunning overreached his opponents; his wit, his
learning, his humour, and knowledge of mankind, are of no ordinary
degree; and this favourite satire contributed, no less than the works of
Erasmus, of Rabelais, and of Boccaccio, to pave the way for the
Reformation. It was among the earliest productions of the press in
Germany and in England, and became so popular here that on the old
altar-piece of Canterbury cathedral are several paintings taken from
this pungent satire. The modern Italian poet, CASTI, seems to have
borrowed the plan of his famous political satire "Gl' Animali Parlanti"
from Reynard the Fox.
The Germans have occasionally borrowed from us, as we also from the
Italian jest-books, many of our "tales and quick answers;" the facetiae
of Poggius and Domenichi, and others, have been a fertile source of our
own.
All tales have wings, whether they come from the east or the north, and
they soon become denizens wherever they alight. Thus it has happened
that the tale which charmed the wandering Arab in his tent, or cheered
the Northern peasant by his winter-fire, alike held on its journey
toward England and Scotland. Dr. Leyden was surprised when he first
perused the fabliaux of "The Poor Scholar," "The Three Thieves," and
"The Sexton of Cluni," to recognise the popular stories which he had
often heard in infancy. He was then young in the poetical studies of the
antiquary, or he would not have been at a loss to know whether the Scots
drew their tales from the French, or the French from their Scottish
intercourse; or whether they originated with the Celtic, or the
Scandinavian, or sometimes even with the Orientalists.
The genealogy of many a tale, as well as the humours of native jesters,
from the days of Henry the Eighth to those of Joe Miller, who, as
somebody has observed, now, too, begins to be ancient, may be traced not
only to France, to Spain, and to Italy, but to Greece and Rome, and at
length to Persia and to India. Our most familiar stories have afforded
instances. The tale of "Whittington and his Cat," supposed to be
indigenous to our country, was first narrated by Arlotto, in his
"Novella delle Gatte," in his "Facetie," which were printed soon after
his death, in 1483; the tale is told of a merchant of Genoa. We must,
however, recollect that Arlotto had been a visitor at the Court of
England. The other puss, though without her boots, may be seen in
Straparola's "Piacevoli Notti." The familiar little Hunchback of the
"Arabian Nights" has been a universal favourite; it may be found
everywhere; in "The Seven Wise Masters," in the "Gesta Romanorum," and
in Le Grand's "Fabliaux." The popular tale of Llywellyn's greyhound,
whose grave we still visit at Bethgelert, Sir William Jones discovered
in Persian tradition, and it has given rise to a proverb, "As repentant
as the man who killed his greyhound." In "Les Maximes des Orientaux" of
Galland, we find several of our popular tales.
"Bluebeard," "Red-riding Hood," and "Cinderella," are tales told alike
in the nurseries of England and France, Germany and Denmark; and the
domestic warning to the Lady Bird, the chant of our earliest day, is
sung by the nurse of Germany.[10] All nations seem alike concerned in
this copartnership of tale-telling; borrowing, adulterating, clipping,
and even receiving back the identical coin which had circulated wherever
it was found. Douce, one of whose favourite pursuits was tracing the
origin and ramification of tales, to my knowledge could have afforded a
large volume of this genealogy of romance; but that volume probably
reposes for the regale of the next century, that literary antiquary
being deterred by caustic reviewers from the publication of his useful
researches.
The people, however, did not advance much in intelligence, even after
the discovery of printing, for new works, which should have been
designed for popular purposes, were still locked up in a language which
none spoke and only the scholar read; and this, notwithstanding a noble
example had been set by the Italians to the other nations of Europe. In
the early days of our printing, the vernacular productions of the press
were thrown out to amuse the children of society, fashioned as their
toys. We have an abundance of poetical and prose facetiae, all of which
were solely adapted to the popular taste, and some of the writers of
which were eminent persons. Few but have heard of "The Merry Tales of
the Madmen of Gotham," and of "Scogin's Jests, full of witty mirth and
pleasant shifts." These facetious works are said to be "gathered" by
Andrew Borde,[11] a physician and humorist of a very original cast of
mind, and who professedly wrote for "the Commonwealth," that is, the
people, many other works on graver topics, not less seasoned with
drolleries. He was the first who composed medical treatises in the
vernacular idiom. His "Breviarie of Health" is a medical dictionary, and
held to be a "jewel" in his time, as Fuller records. In this
alphabetical list of all diseases, his philosophy reaches to the
diseases of the mind, whose cure he combines with that of the body, the
medicine and the satire often pleasantly illustrating each other. From
the "Dietarie of Health" the modern apostles of regimen might expand
their own revelations; it contains many curious matters, not only on
diet, but on the whole system of domestic economy, even to the building
of a house, regulating a family, and choosing a good air to dwell in,
&c. Another of his books, "The Introduction of Knowledge," is a
miscellany of great curiosity, describing the languages and manners of
different countries; in it are specimens of the Cornish, Welsh, Irish,
and Scotch languages, as also of the Turkish and Egyptian, and others,
and the value of their coins. The apt yet concise discrimination of the
national character of every people is true to the hour we are writing.
The writings of Borde incidentally preserve curious notices of the
domestic life and of the customs and arts of that period. Whitaker, in
his history of Whalley, has referred to his directions for the
construction of great houses, in illustration of our domestic
architecture. In all his little books much there is which the antiquary
and the philosopher would not willingly pass by.
Andrew Borde was one of those eccentric geniuses who live in their own
sphere, moving on principles which do not guide the routine of society.
He was a Carthusian friar; his hair-shirt, however, could never mortify
his unvarying facetiousness; but if he ever rambled in his wits, he was
a wider rambler, even beyond the boundaries of Christendom, "a thousand
or two and more myles;" an extraordinary feat in his day. He took his
degree at Montpelier, was incorporated at Oxford, and admitted into the
College of Physicians in London, and was among the physicians of Henry
the Eighth. His facetious genius could not conceal the real learning and
the practical knowledge which he derived from personal observation.
Borde has received hard measure from our literary historians. This
ingenious scholar has been branded by Warton as a mad physician. To
close the story of one who was all his days so facetious, we find that
this Momus of philosophers died in the Fleet. This was the fate of a
great humorist, neither wanting in learning or genius.
It is said that such was his love of "the commonwealth," that he
sometimes addressed them from an open stage, in a sort of gratuitous
lecture, as some amateurs of our own days have delighted to deliver; and
from whence has been handed down to us the term of "MERRY-ANDREW."
In the limited circles which then divided society, the taste for humour
was very low. We had not yet reached to the witty humours of Shakspeare
and Jonson. Sir Thomas More's "Long Story," in endless stanzas, which
Johnson has strangely placed among the specimens of the English
language, was held as a tale of "infinite conceit," assuredly by the
great author himself, who seems to have communicated this sort of taste
to one of his family. Rastall, the learned printer, brother-in-law of
More, and farther, the grave abbreviator of the statutes in English,
issued from his press in 1525, "The Widow Edith's Twelve Merrie Gestys."
She was a tricking widow, renowned for her "lying, weeping, and
laughing," an ancient mumper, who had triumphed over the whole state
spiritual, and the temporality: travelling from town to town in the full
practice of dupery and wheedling, to the admiration of her numerous
victims. The arts of cheatery were long held to be facetious; most of
the "Merrie Jests" consist of stultifying fools, or are sharping tricks,
practised on the simple children of dupery. There is a stock of this
base coinage. This taste for dupery was carried down to a much later
period; for the "Merrie conceited jests of George Peele," and of
Tarleton, are chiefly tricks of sharpers.
"The Hye Way to the Spyttel Hous," or as we should say, "the road to
ruin," exposes the mysteries and craft of the venerable brotherhood of
mendicancy and imposture; their ingenious artifices to attract the eye,
and their secret orgies concealed by midnight; all that flourishes now
in St. Giles's, flourished then in the Barbican. Not long after we have
the first vocabulary of cant language of "The Fraternitye of
Vacabondes:" whose honorary titles cannot be yet placed in Burke's
Extinct Peerage.
There were attacks on the fair sex in those days which were parried by
their eulogies. We seem to have been early engaged in that battle of the
sexes, where the perfections or the imperfections of the female
character offered themes for a libel or a panegyric. From the days of
Boccaccio, the Italians have usually paid their tribute to "illustrious
women," notwithstanding the free insinuations of some malicious
novelists; that people preceded in the refinement of social life the
tramontani. England and France, in their ruder circle of society,
contracted a cynicism which appears in a variety of invectives and
apologies for the beautiful sex.
One of the most popular attacks of this sort was "The School-house of
Women," a severe satire, published anonymously. One of the heaviest
charges is their bitter sarcasm on the new dresses of their friends. The
author, one Edward Gosynhyll, charmed, no doubt, by his successful
onset, and proud in his victory, threw off the mask; mending his
ambidextrous pen for "The Praise of all Women," called "Mulierum Pean,"
he acknowledged himself to be the writer of "The School-house." Probably
he thought he might now do so with impunity, as he was making the
_amende honorable_. Whether this saved the trembling Orpheus from the
rage of the Bacchantes, our scanty literary history tells not; but his
defence is not considered as the least able among several elicited by
his own attack.
"The Wife lapped in Morels' Skins, or the Taming of a Shrew," was the
favourite tale of the Petruchios of those days, where a haughty dame is
softened into a degrading obedience by the brutal command of her mate; a
tale which some antiquaries still chuckle over, who have not been so
venturous as this hero.[12]
All these books, written for the people, were at length consumed by the
hands of their multitudinous readers; we learn, indeed, in Anthony a
Wood's time, that some had descended to the stalls; but at the present
day some of these rare fugitive pieces may be unique. This sort of
pamphlet, Burton, the anatomist of melancholy, was delighted to heap
together: and the collection formed by such a keen relish of popular
humours, he actually bequeathed to the Bodleian Library, where, if they
are kept together, they would answer the design of the donor; otherwise,
such domestic records of the humours and manners of the age, diffused
among the general mass, would bear only the value of their rarity.