THE MEMBERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Astronomical measurement has not only given us the distances of the
various planets from the Sun; it has also furnished us, as in the
annexed table, with their real diameters, and, as a consequence of the
law of gravitation, with their densities and weights, and the force of
gravity at their surfaces. And these numerical details are of the
first importance in directing us as to the inferences that we ought to
draw as to their present physical conditions.
The theory of Copernicus deprived the Earth of its special position as
the immovable centre of the universe, but raised it to the rank of a
planet. It is therefore a heavenly body, yet needs no telescope to
bring it within our ken; bad weather does not hide it from us, but
rather shows it to us under new conditions. We find it to be a globe
of land and water, covered by an atmosphere in which float changing
clouds; we have mapped it, and we find that the land and water are
always there, but their relations are not quite fixed; there is give
and take between them. We have found of what elements the land and
water consist, and how these elements combine with each other or
dissociate. In a word, the Earth is the heavenly body that we know the
best, and with it we must compare and contrast all the others.
Before the invention of the telescope there were but {55} two other
heavenly bodies--the Sun and the Moon--that appeared as orbs showing
visible discs, and even in their cases nothing could be satisfactorily
made out as to their conditions. Now each of the five planets known to
the ancients reveals to us in the telescope a measurable disc, and we
can detect significant details on their surfaces.
THE MOON is the one object in the heavens which does not disappoint a
novice when he first sees it in the telescope. Every detail is hard,
clear-cut, and sharp; it is manifest that we are looking at a globe, a
very rough globe, with hills and mountains, plains and valleys, the
whole in such distinct relief that it seems as if it might be touched.
No clouds ever conceal its details, no mist ever softens its outlines;
there are no half-lights, its shadows are dead black, its high lights
are molten silver. Certain changes of illumination go on with the
advancing age of the Moon, as the crescent broadens out to the half,
the half to the full, and the full, in its turn, wanes away; but the
lunar day is nearly thirty times as long as that of the Earth, and
these changes proceed but slowly.
The full Moon, as seen by the naked eye, shows several vague dark
spots, which most people agree to fancy as like the eyes, nose, and
mouth of a broad, sorrowful face. The ordinary astronomical telescope
inverts the image, so the "eyes" of the Moon are seen in the lower part
of the field of the telescope as a series of dusky plains stretching
right across the disc. But in the upper part, near the left-hand
corner of the underlip, there is a bright, round spot, from which a
number of bright streaks radiate--suggesting a peeled orange with its
stalk, and the lines marking the sections radiating from it. This
bright spot has been called after the great {56}
Mean distance from Sun. Period Velocity
Class. Name. Earth's In millions of revolution. in orbit. Eccentricity.
distance of miles. In years. Miles per
=1. sec.
Terrestrial Mercury 0.387 36.0 0.24 29.7 0.2056
Planets Venus 0.723 67.2 0.62 21.9 0.0068
Earth 1.000 92.9 1.00 18.5 0.0168
Mars 1.524 141.5 1.88 15.0 0.0933
Minor Eros 1.458 135.5 1.76 15.5 0.2228
Planets Ceres 2.767 257.1 4.60 11.1 0.0763
Achilles 5.253 488.0 12.04 8.1 0.0509
Major Jupiter 5.203 483.3 11.86 8.1 0.0483
Planets Saturn 9.539 886.6 29.46 6.0 0.0561
Uranus 19.183 1781.9 84.02 4.2 0.0463
Neptune 30.055 2791.6 164.78 3.4 0.0090
{57}
Mean diameter. Surface. Volume. Mass.
Name. Symbol. In miles. [Earth]=1. [Earth]=1. [Earth]=1. [Earth]=1.
Sun [Sun] 866400 109.422 11973. 1310130. 332000.
Moon [Moon] 2163 0.273 0.075 0.02 0.012
Mercury [Mercury] 3030 0.383 0.147 0.06 0.048
Venus [Venus] 7700 0.972 0.945 0.92 0.820
Earth [Earth] 7918 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.000
Mars [Mars] 4230 0.534 0.285 0.15 0.107
Jupiter [Jupiter] 86500 10.924 119.3 1304. 317.7
Saturn [Saturn] 73000 9.219 85.0 783. 94.8
Uranus [Uranus] 31900 4.029 16.2 65. 14.6
Neptune [Neptune] 34800 4.395 19.3 85. 17.0
{58}
Light
Gravity. and heat Albedo;
Density. Fall in received _i.e._ re-
[Earth] Water [Earth] feet per from Sun. Time of rotation flecting
Name. =1. =1. =1. sec. [Earth]=1. on axis. power.
d. h. m.
Sun 0.25 1.39 27.65 444.60 ... 25 4 48 ± ...
Moon 0.61 3.39 0.17 2.73 1.00 27 7 43 0.17
d. h. m. s.
Mercury 0.85 4.72 0.43 6.91 6.67 88 (?) 0.14
Venus 0.89 4.94 0.82 13.19 1.91 23 21 23 (?) 0.76
Earth 1.00 5.55 1.00 16.08 1.00 23 56 4 0.50 (?)
Mars 0.71 3.92 0.38 6.11 0.43 24 37 23 0.22
h. m.
Jupiter 0.24 1.32 2.65 42.61 0.037 9 55 ± 0.62
Saturn 0.13 0.72 1.18 18.97 0.011 10 14 ± 0.72
Uranus 0.22 1.22 0.90 14.47 0.003 9 30 (?) 0.60
Neptune 0.20 1.11 0.89 14.31 0.001 (?) 0.52
{59} Danish astronomer, "Tycho," and is one of the most conspicuous
objects of the full Moon.
The contrasts of the Moon are much more pronounced when she is only
partly lit up. Then the mountains and valleys stand out in the
strongest relief, and it becomes clear that the general type of
formation on the Moon is that of rings--rings of every conceivable
size, from the smallest point that the telescope can detect up to some
of the great dusky plains themselves, hundreds of miles in diameter.
These rings are so numerous that Galileo described the Moon as looking
as full of "eyes" as a peacock's tail.
The "right eye" of the moonface, as we see it in the sky, is formed by
a vast dusky plain, nearly as large as France and Germany put together,
to which has been given the name of the "Sea of Rains" (_Mare
Imbrium_), and just below this (as seen in the telescope) is one of the
most perfect and beautiful of all the lunar rings--a great ring-plain,
56 miles in diameter, called after the thinker who revolutionised men's
ideas of the solar system, "Copernicus." "Copernicus," like "Tycho,"
is the centre of a set of bright streaks; and a neighbouring but
smaller ring, bearing the great name of "Kepler," stands in a like
relation to another set.
The most elevated region of the Moon is immediately in the
neighbourhood of the great "stalk of the orange," "Tycho." Here the
rings are crowded together as closely as they can be packed; more
closely in many places, for they intrude upon and overlap each other in
the most intricate manner. A long chain of fine rings stretches from
this disturbed region nearly to the centre of the disc, where the great
Alexandrian astronomer is commemorated by a vast walled plain, {60}
considerably larger than the whole of Wales, and known as "Ptolemæus."
The distinctness of the lunar features shows at once that the Moon is
in an altogether different condition from that of the Earth. Here the
sky is continually being hidden by cloud, and hence the details of the
surface of the Earth as viewed from any other planet must often be
invisible, and even when actual cloud is absent there is a more
permanent veil of dust, which must greatly soften and confuse
terrestrial outlines. The clearness, therefore, with which we perceive
the lunar formations proves that there is little or no atmosphere
there. Nor is there any sign upon it of water, either as seas or lakes
or running streams.
Yet the Moon shows clearly that in the past it has gone through great
and violent changes. The gradation is so complete from the little
craterlets, which resemble closely, in form and size, volcanic craters
on the Earth, up to the great ring-plains, like "Copernicus" or
"Tycho," or formations larger still, that it seems natural to infer not
only that the smaller craters were formed by volcanic eruption, like
the similar objects with which we are acquainted on our own Earth, but
that the others, despite their greater sizes, had a like origin. In
consequence of the feebler force of gravity on the Moon, the same
explosive force there would carry the material of an eruption much
further than on the Earth.
The darker, low-lying districts of the Moon give token of changes of a
different order. It is manifest that the material of which the floors
of these plains is composed has invaded, broken down, and almost
submerged many of the ring-formations. Sometimes half {61} of a ring
has been washed away; sometimes just the outline of a ring can still be
traced upon the floor of the sea; sometimes only a slight breach has
been made in the wall. So it is clear that the Moon was once richer in
the great crater-like formations than it is to-day, but a lava-flood
has overflowed at least one-third of its area. More recent still are
the bright streaks, or rays, which radiate in all directions from
"Tycho," and from some of the other ring-plains.
It is evident from these different types of structure on the Moon, and
from the relations which they bear to each other, that the lunar
surface has passed through several successive stages, and that its
changes tended, on the whole, to diminish in violence as time went on;
the minute crater pits with which the surface is stippled having been
probably the last to form.
But the 300 years during which the Moon has been watched with the
telescope have afforded no trace of any continuance of these changes.
She has had a stormy and fiery past; but nothing like the events of
those bygone ages disturbs her serenity to-day.
And yet we must believe that change does take place on the Moon even
now, because during the 354 hours of its long day the Sun beats down
with full force on the unprotected surface, and during the equally long
night that surface is exposed to the cold of outer space. Every part
of the surface must be exposed in turn to an extreme range of
temperature, and must be cracked, torn, and riven by alternate
expansion and contraction. Apart from this slow, wearing process, and
a very few rather doubtful cases in which a minute alteration of some
surface detail has been suspected, our sister planet, the Moon, shows
herself as changeless and inert, without any appreciable trace of air
or water or any sign {62} of life--a dead world, with all its changes
and activities in the past.
MARS, after the Moon, is the planet whose surface we can study to best
advantage. Its orbit lies outside that of the Earth, so that when it
is nearest to us it turns the same side to both the Sun and Earth, and
we see it fully illuminated. Mercury and Venus, on the contrary, when
nearest us are between us and the Sun, and turn their dark sides to us.
When fully illuminated they are at their greatest distance, and appear
very small, and, being near the Sun, are observed with difficulty.
These three are intermediate in size between the Moon and the Earth.
In early telescopic days it was seen that Mars was an orange-coloured
globe with certain dusky markings upon it, and that these markings
slowly changed their place--that, in short, it was a world rotating
upon its axis, and in a period not very different from that of the
Earth. The rotation period of Mars has indeed been fixed to the
one-hundredth part of a second of time; it is 24 h. 37 m. 22.67 s. And
this has been possible because some of the dusky spots observed in the
seventeenth century can be identified now in the twentieth. Some of
the markings on Mars, like our own continents and seas, and like the
craters on the Moon, are permanent features; and many charts of the
planet have been constructed.
Other markings are variable. Since the planet rotates on its axis, the
positions of its poles and equator are known, its equator being
inclined to its orbit at an angle of 24° 50', while the angle in the
case of the Earth is 23° 27'. The times when its seasons begin and end
are therefore known; and it is found that the spring of its northern
hemisphere lasts 199 of our {63} days, the summer 183, the autumn 147,
and the winter 158. Round the pole in winter a broad white cap forms,
which begins to shrink as spring comes on, and may entirely disappear
in summer. No corresponding changes have been observed on the Moon,
but it is easy to find an analogy to them on the Earth. Round both our
poles a great cap of ice and snow is spread--a cap which increases in
size as winter comes on, and diminishes with the advance of summer--and
it seems a reasonable inference to suppose that the white polar caps of
Mars are, like our own, composed of ice and snow.
From time to time indications have been observed of the presence on
Mars of a certain amount of cloud. Familiar dark markings have, for a
short time, been interrupted, or been entirely hidden, by white bands,
and have recovered their ordinary appearance later. With rotation on
its axis and succession of seasons, with atmosphere and cloud, with
land and water, with ice and snow, Mars would seem to be a world very
similar to our own.
This was the general opinion up to the year 1877, when SCHIAPARELLI
announced that he had discovered a number of very narrow, straight,
dark lines on the planet--lines to which he gave the name of
"canali"--that is, "channels." This word was unfortunately rendered
into English by the word "+canals+," and, as a canal means a waterway
artificially made, this mistranslation gave the idea that Mars was
inhabited by intelligent beings, who had dug out the surface of the
planet into a network of canals of stupendous length and breadth.
The chief advocate of this theory is LOWELL, an American observer, who
has given very great attention {64} to the study of the planet during
the last seventeen years. His argument is that the straight lines, the
canals, which he sees on the planet, and the round dots, the "+oases+,"
which he finds at their intersections, form a system so obviously
_un_natural, that it must be the work of design--of intelligent beings.
The canals are to him absolutely regular and straight, like lines drawn
with ruler and pen-and-ink, and the oases are exactly round. But, on
the one hand, the best observers, armed with the most powerful
telescopes, have often been able to perceive that markings were really
full of irregular detail, which Lowell has represented as mere hard
straight lines and circular dots, and, on the other hand, the straight
line and the round dot are the two geometric forms which all very
minute objects must approach in appearance. That we cannot see
irregularities in very small and distant objects is no proof at all
that irregularities do not exist in them, and it has often happened
that a marking which appeared a typical "canal" when Mars was at a
great distance lost that appearance when the planet was nearer.
Astronomers, therefore, are almost unanimous that there is no reason
for supposing that any of the details that we see on the surface of
Mars are artificial in their origin. And indeed the numerical facts
that we know about the planet render it almost impossible that there
should be any life upon it.
If we turn to the table, we see that in size, volume, density, and
force of gravity at its surface, Mars lies between the Moon and the
Earth, but is nearer the Moon. This has an important bearing as to the
question of the planet's atmosphere. On the Earth we pass through half
the atmosphere by ascending a mountain {65} that is three and a third
miles in height; on Mars we should have to ascend nearly nine miles.
If the atmospheric pressure at the surface of Mars were as great as it
is at the surface of the Earth, his atmosphere would be far deeper than
ours and would veil the planet more effectively. But we see the
surface of Mars with remarkable distinctness, almost as clearly, when
its greater distance is allowed for, as we see the Moon. It is
therefore accepted that the atmospheric pressure at the surface of Mars
must be very slight, probably much less than at the top of our very
highest mountains, where there is eternal snow, and life is completely
absent.
But Mars compares badly with the Earth in another respect. It receives
less light and heat from the Sun in the proportion of three to seven.
This we may express by saying that Mars, on the whole, is almost as
much worse off than the Earth as a point on the Arctic Circle is worse
off than a point on the Equator. The mean temperature of the Earth is
taken as about 60° of the Fahrenheit thermometer (say, 15° Cent.); the
mean temperature of Mars must certainly be considerably below
freezing-point, probably near 0° F. Here on our Earth the
boiling-point of water is 212°, and, since the mean temperature is 60°
and water freezes at 32°, it is normally in the liquid state. On Mars
it must normally be in the solid state--ice, snow, or frost, or the
like. But with so rare an atmosphere water will boil at a low
temperature, and it is not impossible that under the direct rays of the
Sun--that is to say, at midday of the torrid zone of Mars--ice may not
only melt, but water boil by day, condensing and freezing again during
the night. NEWCOMB, the foremost astronomer of his day, concluded
"that during {66} the night of Mars, even in the equatorial regions,
the surface of the planet probably falls to a lower temperature than
any we ever experienced on our globe. If any water exists, it must not
only be frozen, but the temperature of the ice must be far below the
freezing point.... The most careful calculation shows that if there
are any considerable bodies of water on our neighbouring planet, they
exist in the form of ice, and can never be liquid to a depth of more
than one or two inches, and that only within the torrid zone and during
a few hours each day." With regard to the snow caps of Mars, Newcomb
thought it not possible that any considerable fall of snow could ever
take place. He regarded the white caps as simply due to a thin deposit
of hoar frost, and it cannot be deemed wonderful that such should
gradually disappear, when it is remembered that each of the two poles
of Mars is in turn presented to the Sun for more than 300 consecutive
days. Newcomb's conclusion was: "Thus we have a kind of Martian
meteorological changes, very slight indeed, and seemingly very
different from those of our Earth, but yet following similar lines on
their small scale. For snowfall substitute frostfall; instead of (the
barometer reading) feet or inches say fractions of a millimetre, and
instead of storms or wind substitute little motions of an air thinner
than that on the top of the Himalayas, and we shall have a general
description of Martian meteorology."
We conclude, then, that Mars is not so inert a world as the Moon, but,
though some slight changes of climate or weather take place upon it, it
is quite unfitted for the nourishment and development of the different
forms of organic life.
Of MERCURY we know very little. It is smaller than Mars but larger
than the Moon, but it differs from them {67} both in that it is much
nearer the Sun, and receives, therefore, many times the light and heat,
surface for surface. We should expect, therefore, that water on
Mercury would exist in the gaseous state instead of in the solid state
as on Mars. The little planet reflects the sunlight only feebly, and
shows no evidence of cloud. A few markings have been made out on its
surface, and the best observers agree that it appears to turn the same
face always to the Sun. This would imply that the one hemisphere is in
perpetual darkness and cold, the other, exposed to an unimaginable
fiery heat.
VENUS is nearly of the same size as the Earth, and the conditions as to
the arrangement of its atmosphere, the force of gravity at its surface,
must be nearly the same as on our own world. But we know almost
nothing of the details of its surface; the planet is very bright,
reflecting fully seven-tenths of the sunlight that falls upon it. It
would seem that, in general, we see nothing of the actual details of
the planet, but only the upper surface of a very cloudy atmosphere.
Owing to the fact that Venus shows no fixed definite marking that we
can watch, it is still a matter of controversy as to the time in which
it rotates upon its axis. Schiaparelli and some other observers
consider that it rotates in the same time as it revolves round the Sun.
Others believe that it rotates in a little less than twenty-four hours.
If this be so, and there is any body in the solar system other than the
Earth, which is adapted to be the home of life, then the planet Venus
is that one.
THE SUN, like the Moon, presents a visible surface to the naked eye,
but one that shows no details. In the telescope the contrast between
it and the Moon is very great, and still greater is the contrast which
is brought {68} out by the measurements of its size, volume, and
weight. But the really significant difference is that the Sun is a
body giving out light and heat, not merely reflecting them. Without
doubt this last difference is connected most closely with the
difference in size. The Moon is cold, dead, unchanging, because it is
a small world; the Sun is bright, fervent, and undergoes the most
violent change, because it is an exceedingly large world.
The two bodies--the Sun and Moon--appear to the eye as being about the
same size, but since the Sun is 400 times as far off as the Moon it
must be 400 times the diameter. That means that it has 400 times 400,
or 160,000 times the surface and 400 times 400 times 400, or 64,000,000
times the volume. The Sun and Moon, therefore, stand at the very
extremes of the scale.
The heat of the Sun is so great that there is some difficulty in
observing it in the telescope. It is not sufficient to use a dark
glass in order to protect the eye, unless the telescope be quite a
small one. Some means have to be employed to get rid of the greater
part of the heat and light. The simplest method of observing is to fix
a screen behind the eyepiece of a telescope and let the image of the
Sun be projected upon the screen, or the sensitive plate may be
substituted for the screen, and a photograph obtained, which can be
examined at leisure afterwards.
As generally seen, the surface of the Sun appears to be mottled all
over by a fine irregular stippling. This stippling, though everywhere
present, is not very strongly marked, and a first hasty glance might
overlook it. From time to time, however, dark spots are seen, of
ever-changing form and size. By watching these, Galileo proved that
the Sun rotated on its axis in a little more than twenty-five days, and
in the {69} nineteenth century SCHWABE proved that the sunspots were
not equally large and numerous at all times, but that there was a kind
of cycle of a little more than eleven years in average length. At one
time the Sun would be free from spots; then a few small ones would
appear; these would gradually become larger and more numerous; then a
decline would follow, and another spotless period would succeed about
eleven years after the first. As a rule, the increase in the spots
takes place more quickly than the decline.
Most of the spot-groups last only a very few days, but about one group
in four lasts long enough to be brought round by the rotation of the
Sun a second time; in other words, it continues for about a month. In
a very few cases spots have endured for half a year.
An ordinary form for a group of spots is a long stream drawn out
parallel to the Sun's equator, the leading spot being the largest and
best defined. It is followed by a number of very small irregular and
ill-developed spots, and the train is brought up by a large spot,
sometimes even larger than the leader, but by no means so regular in
form or so well defined. The leading spot for a short time moves
forward much faster than its followers, at a speed of about 8000 miles
per day. The small middle spots then gradually die out, or rather seem
to be overflowed by the bright material of the solar surface, the
"+photosphere+," as it is called; the spot in the rear breaks up a
little later, and the leader, which is now almost circular, is left
alone, and may last in this condition for some weeks. Finally, it
slowly contracts or breaks up, and the disturbance comes to an end.
This is the course of development of many long-lived spot-groups, but
all do not conform to the same type. {70} The very largest spots are
indeed usually quite different in their appearance and history.
In size, sunspots vary from the smallest dot that can be discovered in
the telescope up to huge rents with areas that are to be counted by
thousands of millions of square miles; the great group of February 1905
had an area of 4,000,000,000 square miles, a thousand times the area of
Europe.
Closely associated with the _maculæ_, as the spots were called by the
first observers, are the "+faculæ+"--long, branching lines of bright
white light, bright as seen even against the dazzling background of the
Sun itself, and looking like the long lines of foam of an incoming
tide. These are often associated with the spots; the spots are formed
between their ridges, and after a spot-group has disappeared the broken
waves of faculæ will sometimes persist in the same region for quite a
long time.
The faculæ clearly rise above the ordinary solar surface; the spots as
clearly are depressed a little below it; because from time to time we
see the bright material of the surface pour over spots, across them,
and sometimes into them. But there is no reason to believe that the
spots are deep, in proportion either to the Sun itself or even to their
own extent.
Sunspots are not seen in all regions of the Sun. It is very seldom
that they are noted in a higher solar latitude than 40°, the great
majority of spots lying in the two zones between 5° and 25° latitude on
either side of the equator. Faculæ, on the other hand, though most
frequent in the spot zones, are observed much nearer the two poles.
It is very hard to find analogies on our Earth for sunspots and for
their peculiarities of behaviour. Some {71} of the earlier astronomers
thought they were like terrestrial volcanoes, or rather like the
eruptions from them. But if there were a solid nucleus to the Sun, and
the spots were eruptions from definite areas of the nucleus, they would
all give the same period of rotation. But sunspots move about freely
on the solar surface, and the different zones of that surface rotate in
different times, the region of the equator rotating the most quickly.
This alone is enough to show that the Sun is essentially not a solid
body. Yet far down below the photosphere something approaching to a
definite structure must already be forming. For there is a well-marked
progression in the zones of sunspots during the eleven-year cycle. At
a time when spots are few and small, known as +the sunspot minimum+,
they begin to be seen in fairly high latitudes. As they get more
numerous, and many of them larger, they frequent the medium zones.
When the Sun is at its greatest activity, known as +the sunspot
maximum+, they are found from the highest zone right down to the
equator. Then the decline sets in, but it sets in first in the highest
zones, and when the time of minimum has come again the spots are close
to the equator. Before these have all died away, a few small spots,
the heralds of a new cycle of activity, begin to appear in high
latitudes.
This law, called after SPÖRER, its discoverer, indicates that the
origin and source of sunspot activity lie within the Sun. At one time
it was thought that sunspots were due to some action of Jupiter--for
Jupiter moves round the Sun in 11.8 years, a period not very different
from the sunspot cycle--or to some meteoric stream. But Spörer's Law
could not be imposed by some influence from without. Still sunspots,
once formed, may be influenced by the Earth, and perhaps by other {72}
planets also, for MRS. WALTER MAUNDER has shown that the numbers and
areas of spots tend to be smaller on the western half of the disc, as
seen from the Earth, than on the eastern, while considerably more
groups come into view at the east edge of the Sun than pass out of view
at the west edge, so that it would appear as if the Earth had a damping
effect upon the spots exposed to it.
But the Sun is far greater than it ordinarily appears to us. Twice
every year, and sometimes oftener, the Moon, when new, comes between
the Earth and the Sun, and we have an +Eclipse of the Sun+, the dark
body of the Moon hiding part, or all, of the greater light. The Sun
and Moon are so nearly of the same apparent size that an eclipse of the
Sun is total only for a very narrow belt of the Earth's surface, and,
as the Moon moves more quickly than the Sun, the eclipse only remains
total for a very short time--seven minutes at the outside, more usually
only two or three. North or south of that belt the Moon is projected,
so as to leave uncovered a part of the Sun north or south of the Moon.
A total eclipse, therefore, is rare at any particular place, and if a
man were able to put himself in the best possible position on each
occasion, it would cost him thirty years to secure an hour's
accumulated duration.
Eclipses of the Moon are visible over half the world at one time, for
there is a real loss to the Moon of her light. Her eclipses are
brought about when, in her orbit, she passes behind the Earth, and the
Earth, being between the Sun and the Moon, cuts off from the latter
most of the light falling upon her; not quite all; a small portion
reaches her after passing through the thickest part of the Earth's
atmosphere, so that the {73} Moon in an eclipse looks a deep copper
colour, much as she does when rising on a foggy evening.
Total eclipses of the Sun have well repaid all the efforts made to
observe them. It is a wonderful sight to watch the blackness of
darkness slowly creeping over the very fountain of light until it is
wholly and entirely hidden; to watch the colours fade away from the
landscape and a deathlike, leaden hue pervade all nature, and then to
see a silvery, star-like halo, flecked with bright little rose-coloured
flames, flash out round the black disc that has taken the place of the
Sun.
These rose-coloured flames are the solar "+prominences+," and the halo
is the "+corona+," and it is to watch these that astronomers have made
so many expeditions hither and thither during the last seventy years.
The "prominences," or red flames, can be observed, without an eclipse,
by means of the spectroscope, but, as the work of the spectroscope is
to form the subject of another volume of this series, it is sufficient
to add here that the prominences are composed of various glowing gases,
chiefly of hydrogen, calcium, and helium.
These and other gases form a shell round the Sun, about 3000 miles in
depth, to which the name "+chromosphere+" has been given. It is out of
the chromosphere that the prominences arise as vast irregular jets and
clouds. Ordinarily they do not exceed 40 or 50 thousand miles in
height, but occasionally they extend for 200 or even 300 thousand miles
from the Sun. Their changes are as remarkable as their dimensions;
huge jets of 50 or 100 thousand miles have been seen to form, rise, and
disappear within an hour or less, and movements have been chronicled of
200 or 300 miles in a single second of time.
Prominences are largest and most frequent when {74} sunspots and faculæ
are most frequent, and fewest when those are fewest. The corona, too,
varies with the sunspots. At the time of maximum the corona sends
forth rays and streamers in all directions, and looks like the
conventional figure of a star on a gigantic scale. At minimum the
corona is simpler in form, and shows two great wings, east and west, in
the direction of the Sun's equator, and round both of his poles a
number of small, beautiful jets like a crest of feathers.
Some of the streamers or wings of the corona have been traced to an
enormous distance from the Sun. Mrs. Walter Maunder photographed one
ray of the corona of 1898 to a distance of 6 millions of miles.
LANGLEY, in the clear air of Pike's Peak, traced the wings of the
corona of 1878 with the naked eye to nearly double this distance.
But the rapid changes of sunspots and the violence of some of the
prominence eruptions are but feeble indications of the most wonderful
fact concerning the Sun, _i.e._ the enormous amount of light and heat
which it is continually giving off. Here we can only put together
figures which by their vastness escape our understanding. Sunlight is
to moonlight as 600,000 is to 1, so that if the entire sky were filled
up with full moons, they would not give us a quarter as much light as
we derive from the Sun. The intensity of sunlight exceeds by far any
artificial light; it is 150 times as bright as the calcium light, and
three or four times as bright as the brightest part of the electric arc
light. The amount of heat radiated by the Sun has been expressed in a
variety of different ways; C. A. YOUNG very graphically by saying that
if the Sun were encased in a shell of ice 64 feet deep, its heat would
melt the shell in one minute, and that if a bridge of ice could be {75}
formed from the Earth to the Sun, 2-½ miles square in section and 93
millions of miles long, and the entire solar radiation concentrated
upon it, in one second the ice would be melted, in seven more
dissipated into vapour.
The Earth derives from the Sun not merely light and heat, but, by
transformation of these, almost every form of energy manifest upon it;
the energy of the growth of plants, the vital energy of animals, are
only the energy received from the Sun, changed in its expression.
The question naturally arises, "If the Sun, to which the Earth is
indebted for nearly everything, passes through a change in its activity
every eleven years or so, how is the Earth affected by it?" It would
seem at first sight that the effect should be great and manifest. A
sunspot, like that of February 1905, one thousand times as large as
Europe, into which worlds as large as our Earth might be poured, like
peas into a saucer, must mean, one might think, an immense falling off
of the solar heat.
Yet it is not so. For even this great sunspot was but small as
compared with the Sun as a whole. Had it been dead black, it would
have stopped out much less than 1 per cent. of the Sun's heat; and even
the darkest sunspot is really very bright. And the more spots there
are, the more numerous and brighter are the faculæ; so that we do not
know certainly which of the two phases, maximum or minimum, means the
greater radiation. If the weather on the Earth answers to the sunspot
cycle, the connection is not a simple one; as yet no connection has
been proved. Thus two of the worst and coldest summers experienced in
England fell the one in 1860, the other in 1879, _i.e._ at {76} maximum
and minimum respectively. So, too, the hot summers of 1893 and 1911
were also, the one at maximum and the other at minimum; and ordinary
average years have fallen at both the phases just the same.
Yet there is an answer on the part of the Earth to these solar changes.
The Earth itself is a kind of magnet, possessing a magnetism of which
the intensity and direction is always changing. To watch these
changes, very sensitive magnets are set up, and a slight daily
to-and-fro swing is noticed in them; this swing is more marked in
summer than in winter, but it is also more marked at times of the
sunspot maximum than at minimum, showing a dependence upon the solar
activity.
Yet more, from time to time the magnetic needle undergoes more or less
violent disturbance; in extreme cases the electric telegraph
communication has been disturbed all over the world, as on September
25, 1909, when the submarine cables ceased to carry messages for
several hours. In most cases when such a "magnetic storm" occurs,
there is an unusually large or active spot on the Sun. The writer was
able in 1904 to further prove that such "storms" have a marked tendency
to recur when the same longitude of the Sun is presented again towards
the Earth. Thus in February 1892, when a very large spot was on the
Sun, a violent magnetic storm broke out. The spot passed out of sight
and the storm ceased, but in the following month, when the spot reached
exactly the same apparent place on the Sun's disc, the storm broke out
again. Such magnetic disturbances are therefore due to streams of
particles driven off from limited areas of the Sun, probably in the
same way that the long, {77} straight rays of the corona are driven
off. Such streams of particles, shot out into space, do not spread out
equally in all directions, like the rays of light and heat, but are
limited in direction, and from time to time they overtake the Earth in
its orbit, and, striking it, cause a magnetic storm, which is felt all
over the Earth at practically the same moment.
JUPITER is, after the Sun, much the largest member of the solar system,
and it is a peculiarly beautiful object in the telescope. Even a small
instrument shows the little disc striped with many delicately coloured
bands or belts, broken by white clouds and dark streaks, like a "windy
sky" at sunset. And it changes while being watched, for, though
400,000,000 miles away from us, it rotates so fast upon its axis that
its central markings can actually be seen to move.
This rapid rotation, in less than ten hours, is the most significant
fact about Jupiter. For different spots have different rotation
periods, even in the same latitude, proving that we are looking down
not upon any solid surface of Jupiter, but upon its cloud envelope--an
envelope swept by its rapid rotation and by its winds into a vast
system of parallel currents.
One object on Jupiter, the great "+Red Spot+," has been under
observation since 1878, and possibly for 200 years before that. It is
a large, oval object fitted in a frame of the same shape. The spot
itself has often faded and been lost since 1878, but the frame has
remained. The spot is in size and position relative to Jupiter much as
Australia is to the Earth, but while Australia moves solidly with the
rest of the Earth in the daily rotation, neither gaining on South
America nor losing on Africa, the Red Spot on Jupiter sees many other
spots and clouds pass it by, and does not even {78} retain the same
rate of motion itself from one year to another.
No other marking on Jupiter is so permanent as this. From time to time
great round white clouds form in a long series as if shot up from some
eruption below, and then drawn into the equatorial current. From time
to time the belts themselves change in breadth, in colour, and
complexity. Jupiter is emphatically the planet of change.
And such change means energy, especially energy in the form of heat.
If Jupiter possessed no heat but that it derived from the Sun, it would
be colder than Mars, and therefore an absolutely frozen globe. But
these rushing winds and hurrying clouds are evidences of heat and
activity--a native heat much above that of our Earth. While Mars is
probably nearer to the Moon than to the Earth in its condition, Jupiter
has probably more analogies with the Sun.
The one unrivalled distinction of SATURN is its Ring. Nothing like
this exists elsewhere in the solar system. Everywhere else we see
spherical globes; this is a flat disc, but without its central portion.
It surrounds the planet, lying in the plane of its equator, but touches
it nowhere, a gap of 7000 miles intervening. It appears to be
circular, and is 42,000 miles in breadth.
Yet it is not, as it appears to be, a flat continuous surface. It is
in reality made up of an infinite number of tiny satellites, mere dust
or pebbles for the most part, but so numerous as to look from our
distance like a continuous ring, or rather like three or four
concentric rings, for certain divisions have been noticed in it--an
inner broad division called after its discoverer, CASSINI, and an
outer, fainter, narrower one discovered by ENCKE. The innermost part
of the ring is dusky, fainter {79} than the planet or the rest of the
ring, and is known as the "crape-ring."
Of Saturn itself we know little; it is further off and fainter than
Jupiter, and its details are not so pronounced, but in general they
resemble those of Jupiter. The planet rotates quickly--in 10 h. 14
m.--its markings run into parallel belts, and are diversified by spots
of the same character as on Jupiter. Saturn is probably possessed of
no small amount of native heat.
URANUS and NEPTUNE are much smaller bodies than Jupiter and Saturn,
though far larger than the Earth. But their distance from the Earth
and Sun makes their discs small and faint, and they show little in the
telescope beyond a hint of "belts" like those of Jupiter; so that, as
with that planet, the surfaces that they show are almost certainly the
upper surfaces of a shell of cloud.
In general, therefore, the rule appears to hold good throughout the
solar system that a very large body is intensely hot and in a condition
of violent activity and rapid change; that smaller bodies are less hot
and less active, until we come down to the smallest, which are cold,
inert, and dead. Our own Earth, midway in the series, is itself cold,
but is placed at such a distance from the Sun as to receive from it a
sufficient but not excessive supply of light and heat, and the changes
of the Earth are such as not to prohibit but to nourish and support the
growth and development of the various forms of life.
The smallest members of the solar system are known as METEORS. These
are often no more than pebbles or particles of dust, moving together in
associated orbits round the Sun. They are too small and too scattered
to be seen in open space, and become visible to us only {80} when their
orbits intersect that of the earth, and the earth actually encounters
them. They then rush into our atmosphere at a great speed, and become
highly heated and luminous as they compress the air before them; so
highly heated that most are vapourised and dissipated, but a few reach
the ground. As they are actually moving in parallel paths at the time
of one of these encounters, they appear from the effect of perspective
to diverge from a point, hence called the "+radiant+." Some showers
occur on the same date of every year; thus a radiant in the
constellation Lyra is active about April 21, giving us meteors, known
as the "Lyrids"; and another in Perseus in August, gives us the
"Perseids." Other radiants are active at intervals of several years;
the most famous of all meteoric showers, that of the "Leonids," from a
radiant in Leo, was active for many centuries every thirty-third year;
and another falling in the same month, November, came from a radiant in
Andromeda every thirteen years. In these four cases and in some others
the meteors have been found to be travelling along the same path as a
comet. It is therefore considered that meteoric swarms are due to the
gradual break up of comets; indeed the comet of the Andromeda shower,
known from one of its observers as "Biela's," was actually seen to
divide into two in December 1845, and has not been observed as a comet
since 1852, though the showers connected with it, giving us the meteors
known as the "Andromedes," have continued to be frequent and rich.
Meteors, therefore, are the smallest, most insignificant, of all the
celestial bodies; and the shining out of a meteor is the last stage of
its history--its death; after death it simply goes to add an
infinitesimal trifle to the dust of the earth.
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