In Ancient China.
THE FLUTES OF THE CHINESE.
Flutes I hold to be without doubt the earliest of wind instruments.
They are found all over the world; no race however ancient, no tribe
however rude, but possesses some instrument of this class. And if we
may credit some stated example in museums, they may belong to the
prehistoric age, the bones of bird or beast being adapted by man to
whistling or fluting. There are two distinct styles common to flutes:
the one is blown at the end, and is of the sort we use and call pipes
or whistles; and the other is blown across a side hole near a closed
end, and is with us the flute proper, or _flûte traversière_. But in
addition to these, the Chinese have a flute which is quite unique,
being an open tube, blown across centrally.
Given a land where river reeds are to be found, or a land where
the bamboo flourishes, and we need no myths of origin nor tales of
inventions to be assured that savage man would by observation of
nature be led to convert the tubes to the purpose of producing sounds;
and the gradual development from a simple pipe to one with additional
side holes would in process of time be unavoidable. Travellers tell us
that in the bamboo forests the rushing wind makes a wild music as it
passes the stems of broken bamboos. The Pan’s pipes might well have
been in its earliest form a collection of such broken tubes. Here up
to this stage, therefore, nature was the guide. The Chinese were, it
is said long in making the advance to the next stage,—that of cutting
or piercing holes, to obtain more sounds from one tube by temporarily
closing two or more holes. The first step counts for much; and with
most races a long period may have elapsed before this step was taken,
inevitable as it was.
Indeed the change from the use of two fingers of each hand to the use
of three fingers must be regarded as a very significant advance. A long
stretch of time was doubtless necessary before a pipe of six holes took
a position in musical performance or supplanted the four holed pipe,
for it could not be otherwise than an educational advance.
The bamboo is ranked by the Chinese as a product of special class,
being neither tree nor plant; but intermediate by nature, and of
peculiar value to human wants. Hence the bamboo occupies one of the
divisions in their scheme of natural sonorous bodies, and in music
is dedicated to flutes; although often flutes are made of marble, of
jadestone, and of copper.
The dancers’ flute (called the _Yueh_) was a short flute and probably
one of the most ancient. It had but three holes, recalling our flute
of European usage, which was played accompanied with the tabor for
dancing, and for marking time by rhythm. At present this Chinese flute
is but a rudimentary survival, being held as a stick or _bâton_ for
directing the movements of the dancers. There is a shepherd’s flute
_Ch-iang-ti_, and one _Heng-ti_; both blown traversely. The _Hsiao_,
said to have been invented by Yeh Chung during the Han dynasty, is a
flute of dark brown bamboo, about twenty inches in length, having five
holes on the upper surface and one at the back. The use of this is now
restricted to ritual music, being played at the Confucian ceremonies on
the “Moon Terrace,” six being played simultaneously. There are various
flutes with four, five, seven, or eight holes, both for popular and for
ritual use.
The most popular of flutes is the _Ti-tzu_; it is bound with several
rings of waxed silk to preserve the bamboo from splitting. It has eight
holes, one for embouchure, six for the fingers, and one covered with
a thin membrane peeled off the interior of reeds; this membrane, like
that which our recorder flute had, is intended to give a particular
character to the tone; and it is curious how often we find such an
adaptation, although in our modern custom quite obsolete. The _Ti-tzu_
is frequently ornamented with long silk tassels when possessed by the
wealthy people. It is used alike in theatrical performances, in funeral
and in marriage processions, and is indispensable to every Chinese
orchestra.
The Dragon flutes, ornamented with a dragon’s head and tail, are
essentially for ritual service, and not permitted for ordinary use. The
illustration shows the awe inspiring aspect of these instruments.
[Illustration: _The Chinese Dragon Flute._
_Fig. 36._]
Pictures of the Chinese show performers playing upon flutes with an
embouchure at the middle of the length, and with holes both to the
right and left of the embouchure. This flute is peculiar to the
Chinese, and was described by Father Amiot. But, though the appearance
of the style is maintained, the integrity of the instrument is seldom
adhered to; so that it had come to be a doubt whether such a flute was
playable, or even had been actually observed by Father Amiot. For, in
modern hands, a plug near the middle converted it into a double ended
flute of the ordinary method of playing only requiring a few holes in
addition. M. J. A. Van Aalst names this flute _Ch-ih_; says that the
number of holes varies from six to ten, and even more. But M. Victor
C. Mahillon, describing more elaborately the ancient instrument, names
it _Hwang-chông-tché_ and reproduces a description of it given by
Prince Tsai-Yu, in 1596; and to this I am indebted for details, and
also for the illustration, which I copy from that by M. Victor Mahillon
in his most interesting catalogue of the Brussels Museum of Musical
Instruments.
I remember seeing one of these flutes at the Chinese Court at the
Fisheries or other of the Kensington exhibitions years ago, and
wondered, much perplexed, how the playing was to be accomplished. If my
memory serves, there is a specimen now at the South Kensington Museum;
though for all practical enquiry, many instruments might as well be
absent, there being no sufficient light to enable the visitor to see
what he is in quest of in that department either by night or day.
Prince Tsai-Yu states that this flute is very difficult to play; which
would account for its neglect, so that now the playing is a lost art.
He says that it was constantly in use during the period of the three
first dynasties (2205-1122 B.C.). It is fully described in “Tcheu-ly,”
an old volume treating of the ceremonial of the Tcheou during the rule
of the dynasty occupying the throne of China in those early days. So
that this instrument takes us back more than four thousand years. Its
scale consists, according to M. Mahillon’s investigation, of six equal
tempered semitones:—
[Illustration]
This curious flute necessitates a peculiar attitude on the part of the
player. The flute is open all through; and, as you see, in order fairly
to distribute his energies, the performer should place himself between
the two ends, playing a scale by alternating the fingering, producing
the notes in order, first from one hand and next from the other hand,
according to the figures accompanying the illustration.
[Illustration: _Mouth Hole._
_Fig. 37._
_Chinese Flute. Hwang-chong-tche._]
The instrument was constructed by M. Mahillon after the indications
of the ancient writers, and found by him to be so exact in accordance
with them, that he has no doubt that it was intended to be a standard
of measurement for the pitch of the instruments provided by imperial
decree for ceremonial use. The circumference of this flute equals that
of the coins bearing the imprint _Kai-Yuen_, and the length is that
given by fourteen of these coins placed in line one beyond the other.
The diameter of the coins inscribed _Kai-Yuen_ is one thumb’s breadth,
ten of these being the length of the ancient Chinese foot measure, and
consequently the length of the flute is one foot and four thumbs. The
interior diameter of the tube is seven lines, and the embouchure is one
half of that, whilst the lateral holes are again one half of diameter
of embouchure. The question of dimensions is of great importance in
respect of all matters of pitch; since the larger the embouchure the
higher will be the degree of power exercised and acting upon the column
of air in the interior of the tube, and consequently the sharper the
pitch of tone elicited. So that for estimating a standard of pitch
great accuracy in dimensions is of paramount necessity. The embouchure
is placed precisely at the middle of the length. The holes marked 5 and
6 occupy points corresponding to one third of the length. Those, 3 and
4, are placed at one quarter the length, and 1 and 2 represent exactly
one sixth of the length.
This picture is by a native artist. It is quite modern yet the archaic
air about it seems at once to take us into an older world. The
modernity of the artist is evident, he has represented a degenerated
type of the flute “tche,” not the ancient authentic. The white spaces
are not intended for holes, they merely show the intervals between the
rings of dark silk which are customary as preventing the bamboo from
splitting. Correctly, the player should be shown with one hand to the
right of the mouth and one to the left, the fingers covering either
side three holes. So you will have to imagine the still more curious
picture that would have been presented by a Chinese performer in the
olden time.
[Illustration: _Fig. 38._]
This symmetry in proportions is very remarkable and interesting.
When the flute is blown across, with the six holes closed, a note is
produced which was, estimated as _d_, but is really _e_♭; and when,
in addition, the thumbs close the end orifices, then the note is an
octave lower, nearly. Absolute precision we should not expect except
from an expert Chinese player, as a different management of the lip may
be an important factor in deciding the actual tone intended, and may
differ as much from the European mode of management as the voices of
the Chinese differ in character from those of Europeans. For, however
exact in design such standards of pitch may be, experience teaches
us that scientific exactitude in pitch can only be secured when the
pressure of wind producing the note is weighed, as in our organ pipes.
With lip blown flutes, when a certain pressure is exceeded, the pipe
blows its octave and thus no doubt the player is warned, and custom
enables him to restrain his breath to the correct force. The Chinese
are wonderfully methodical in their systems, but they have not in
these matters ever attained to the accuracy of practical scientific
demonstration. It should be remarked that E♭[Illustration] is the
standard of pitch according to another pipe which was described by
Amiot; and, as I have shown in my investigation, was the leading pitch
note in the system of the _Sheng_. A pipe which I had made to the
dimensions of that standard pipe, but made with organ pipe mouth, also
gave the same note; and a fourth below that is the lowest in that scale.
The aforesaid standard pipe of the imperial archives is blown after
another fashion. It is an open pipe, and is blown at one end in such
a way that the lip of the player forms the base, corresponding to the
languid in the organ pipe, a semi-oval or V shaped piece being
cut away from the end of the pipe, over which the stream of air is
directed; the opening taking, in fact, the function of the mouth of the
organ pipe. The mode of blowing is not altogether, or peculiarly, a
Chinese method, for the Egyptian _Nay_ may be considered an approach to
similarity; but there is a little pipe found in Bolivia, in use among
the Indian Quechas, which is exactly the counterpart of the Chinese
_Lu_ pipe as regards construction, and the mode of blowing is the same.
The little pipe is called the _Krena_; it is made of bamboo, and has
six holes, the successive opening of which gives the notes following,
the lowest being the end note of the pipe:—
[Illustration]
[Illustration: _The Krena._
_Fig. 39._]
Here is an illustration of the _Krena_; it is of one in the Brussels
Museum. Being recently in the British Museum, I lighted upon an
instrument on this principle, having two holes only, but in other
respects the same; comes from Donga in the Niger region, and is called
the _Lera_. The Japanese have a flute called the _Siaku-hachi_ which
is of this nature, and is evidently traceable to the Chinese. The fact
of a pipe cut in this particular fashion being adopted as the standard
by authority for music, and for measures, indicates a very early usage
for this kind of flute pipe; perhaps it came next in succession to the
Pan’s pipes. Indeed, I have seen some specimens of Pan’s pipes, found
with the people in the Malay Archipelago, which are double cut in this
way.
The Rev. F. W. Galpin, the well-known enthusiastic collector of musical
instruments, possesses some of this type obtained from Indian tribes of
the North West of America, which I have heard him play as to the manner
born. The wide diffusion of this type raises curious questions of the
dispersion of races, as against that of a common instinct leading to
similar development.
The _Tche_ is undoubtedly an instrument concerning which, both
practically and historically, a fuller knowledge is to be desired;
it involves some curious acoustical problems which would form an
interesting study. Certified as being one of the most ancient of
Chinese musical instruments, it indicates that when it first was
introduced a high degree of civilization must have been attained, and a
very keen intelligence have been directed to musical problems, before
so complete a system of relation of tones, and measurement of pipes,
could have been worked out on a fixed method.
In the accounts received from travellers who attempt to estimate
the scales and character of the native music heard by them, we are
accustomed to find a prevalence of the minor mode always affirmed,
and the statement is generally accepted as one based upon definite
knowledge. It seems to be considered that the mournful and the
plaintive in song and in music reflect the temperament of the people,
and are its natural expression. I am inclined to question this; for I
may doubt the keenness of the observer, doubt his musical capability
of ear or mental power of analysis, may perceive a tendency of mind to
take a stand on foregone conclusions, and may not be satisfied that
the writer is competent upon the subject upon which he writes very
positively.
Experience has shown me how frequently statements of this kind are not
borne out by facts, although the statements have been made in perfect
good faith. In this aspect there is a paper by J. F. Fillmore (an
American author) which has a peculiar significance. He made a study
of the music of the Indian tribes in America, having very special
facilities for his work; and he also harmonised many of the melodies,
with much satisfaction to the Indians. He says that,—
In short, all melodic and harmonic resources to be found
in our music, even the most modern and advanced, are also
to be found in the primitive music of a people who have
no musical notation, no theory of music, no systematized
knowledge of it whatever.
And then at the end we have this _naïve_ conclusion:—
Long before the first week was over, all my preconceived
notions of the significance of the incomplete scales, and
of the importance of the plain major and minor chords as
related to acoustic problems, had wholly disappeared.
The truth is that scales are so elusive that they may be read so as
to mean anything a system maker desires, and such scrutiny is about
as reliable as the reading of character and destiny by the systems of
astrology and palmistry.
Chinese melodies are never definitely major or minor; are never
intended to be so. The intervals are not the same as ours, and our
notation does not express them with accuracy such as scientific
analysis requires.
On the subject of the growth of scales my conclusions have been
previously recorded, but I think that here, at the end of the pipe
investigation, a brief repetition is desirable to impress the memory
with the special view which is of importance to the musician’s survey.
Whether in the east the tetrachord or the pentatone had priority in
development cannot be determined, for it may well have been that both
were developed independently; I favour the idea that the pentatonic
is the rudest in character, and originated with the wilder tribes of
the east in a very primitive era, whereas the tetrachord seems by its
nature to accord with early pastoral life. I am only concerned with
the question of scales from the instrumentalist’s point of view; and I
explain the prevalence of the pentatonic scale as growing out of the
nature of the _instrument_,—first for the pipe there was one note, then
there were two, and so on. Voices and pipes imitated one another, and
the perception of the relation we call an octave seems to have been
everywhere an instinctive perception.
I suppose it will generally be conceded that man is naturally
lazy. Well, he will not exert his voice more than is necessary for
his immediate purpose; so he takes more easily to the interval of
the fourth, for to rise to the fifth means greater effort. Place
your fingers on a pipe; the spread is not equal, there is a marked
enlargement of space between first and second fingers. If holes are
cut to correspond with this finger difference, then the result is
contrary to the pipe’s need, for nature for equal tone interval wants
the upper holes of the pipe to be nearer together: so the note turns
out to be a tone and a half higher instead of the one tone distance.
As with our keyboard, a long time passed before the thumb was brought
into recognition to do finger work; so in the pipe, the use of the
thumb was an after thought. Thus on the under side of the pipe a hole
was introduced dividing equally or unequally this wide upper interval,
itself forming another wide interval with the second note below; and
in effect an overlapping arises in the pentatonic structure whereby
the pentatone can be dissected into two tetrachords within the octave.
Sometimes the distance of the first hole from the lower end of the
pipe is greater, and makes the interval (a neuter third) appear at the
beginning or end, according as we reckon the progression. In whatever
way it may be, the pipe in the beginning made the scale.
There are many varieties of pentatonic construction, and the wide
intervals may be in any position. Our best representative is found in
the black keys of the pianoforte. We may commence on either F♯ or C♯,
and thus vary the relations in progression of the scale.
A plaintive character in the music of native melodies is greatly due
to the existence in the instrument of those imperfect intervals, the
three-quarter tones, and the little leaps of tones that seem to fail to
attain their aim, and never satisfy the listening ear of the European.