The savage host of Berbers, in 1010, attacked Medinat-az-Zahra and
burned it to the ground. The natives were slaughtered with fearful
cruelty, even within the precincts of the mosque the pursuers cut them
down. It is said that portions of the caliph's palace were afterwards
used in erecting the Convent of San Jerónimo, to the north-west of the
city. At this time Cordova was assailed, its buildings burnt, much of
its treasure was despoiled or carried away by the troops of
Abd-l-Jabbar, the Berber leader.
There is one wonder that conquest has left unspoiled to Cordova, and one
cannot survey the imperishable mosque of the caliph without veneration
for the race that set an example to the world in virtue, culture, and
the joy of beautiful living. It is to see this wonder of Moorish art
that the stranger visits Cordova.
The way to the mosque (mezquita) is readily discovered, for every
stranger is recognised by the street urchins who are eager in offering
directions.
The first religious edifice upon this site was a Roman temple. In 786
the building of the Moorish mezquita was begun by the first Abderahman.
The work was carried on by the next sultan, Hishem, and by Abderahman
III. For more than two centuries the mosque grew in size and splendour,
as each succeeding caliph added some new beauty.
The mosque is a magnificent example of Moorish architecture. Vast,
massive, bewildering, and beautiful are not extravagant terms to use in
describing this edifice. It is worth while to walk round the outside of
the building to gain an impression of its vast size and the strength of
its structure. Like all Moorish buildings the exterior is plain, with
the fine primitive severity of Byzantine work. The interior structure is
enclosed by walls of about fifty feet in height, buttressed, and very
stout, with numerous towers. The bronze doors are of finest Moorish
work. There is a handsome portal on the north side, built in the time of
Hakam between 988 and 1000.
The Gate of Pardon which gives entrance to the Court of Oranges has a
horseshoe arch, surmounted by three smaller arches, and which are
decorated with paintings of no value. This gateway is not Moorish, but a
later addition built by the Christians in imitation of the gate at
Seville Cathedral.
The Court of Oranges was used by the Moslems for ablution before
entering the mosque. It is a wide space, with palms, orange-trees, and
fountains, and a colonnade. It is the most beautiful spot in Cordova,
cool and gracefully shaded, and when the orange-trees are in flower a
fragrance pervades the place. Once there were nineteen beautiful
gateways leading into the court, and these were uniform with the
nineteen aisles. The famous fountain of Abderahman stands in the centre
of the court. Here all day the women of Cordova are gathered. They come
one by one, or in groups together. Each carries her red-brown pitcher
for water. It is the meeting-place where the day's gossip is exchanged.
Always there is the sound of laughter and gay chattering. All the
Cordovese appear to be happy.
We enter the mosque by the Puerta de las Palmas; the eyes are dazed by
the endless columns and profusion of arches, numbering nearly nine
hundred. Nowhere are there such columns and arches as these. Every stone
has its history. Marble, porphyry, and jasper are the material, and the
arches are painted red and white. The effect is indescribable. I
believe that there are not two columns alike in point of decorative
detail. Some of the arches are of horseshoe shape, and some are round.
But symmetry is retained; the whole interior gives a delightful
impression of grace and elegance.
Look up at the wondrous ceiling. Its wealth of colour is dazzling. When
the thousands of lamps were lit, the ceiling shone with gold and
brilliant colours. In some parts the ceilings of the mosque are
embellished with paintings, and a number of cufic inscriptions are seen
among the decorative designs.
De Amicis, writing of the Mosque of Cordova, says: "Imagine a forest,
fancy yourself in the densest part of it, and that you can see nothing
but the trunks of trees. So in this mosque, on whatever side you look,
the eye loses itself among the columns. It is a forest of marble, whose
confines one cannot discover. You follow with your eye, one by one, the
very long rows of columns that interlace at every step with numberless
other rows, and you reach a semi-obscure background, in which other
columns seem to be gleaming. There are nineteen aisles, which extend
from north to south, traversed by thirty-three others, supported, among
them all by more than nine hundred columns of prophyry, jasper,
breccia, and marbles of every colour."
The walls and ceiling of parts of the building are in marvellous
preservation. They gleam with an infinite opulence of colour; they are
elaborately embellished with almost every conceivable form of
arabesques, bas-reliefs, and Moorish designs, painted in wonderful hues
and rich in gilt.
The Mihrâb is the prime glory of the building. It was first erected and
adorned by Abderahman I., and a second prayer-recess was constructed by
the second Abderaham. The third Mihrâb dates from 961, and was erected
in the time of the Caliph Hakam II. It is one of the finest specimens of
Moorish art extant. Here the Koran was kept, and the most solemn rites
were performed in the days of the great caliphs.
The cupola of this superb sanctuary is carved in the shape of a
pine-apple, decorated with shell-like ornaments, and painted lavishly in
gold, blue, and red. There are delicate pillars of marble, with gold
capitals. The niches of the dome are beautifully painted, and the chief
arch is decorated with mosaics. Over the arch is an inscription in gold
on a ground of blue.
The slender pillars and graceful double arches of the entrance to the
vestibule of the Mihrâb are examples of Moorish architecture in its
finest manifestation. Very gorgeous and intricate is the design of the
façade of the Mihrâb. The portal is a horseshoe arch, handsomely
ornamented, and above runs a tier of smaller horseshoe arches. This is
surmounted by other arches, gracefully interlaced, and adorned with a
profusion of mosaics and decorations in colour.
When the mosque was converted into a Christian cathedral under the name
of Santa Maria, the side aisles were divided into about forty chapels.
The variety of the architectural styles in this great building range
from the Moorish to the baroque and the plateresque. Charles V. was
partly responsible for the choir, which gives a strange note of discord
to the harmony of the Moorish temple. But the emperor lamented having
granted leave to the Chapter to build the Coro, for upon seeing the
structure, he exclaimed: "You have built what you or others might have
built anywhere, but you have destroyed something that was unique in the
world." To construct the choir, a part of the beautiful Morisco ceiling
was destroyed, and commonplace vaulting took its place.
None of the Christian chapels are of especial interest, except perhaps
the Chapel of Villaviciosa which is Morisco in design. In the Capilla de
la Cena is a painting by Céspedes, who was buried in the cathedral. The
choir of the Christian church is very ornate, and of sixteenth-century
date. Lope de Rueda, the dramatist, was buried here. The stalls are by
Cornejo, a celebrated carver, who also designed the beautiful silleria.
The massive chandelier is of silver. Over the altar is a painting by
Palomino.
The Sala Capitular contains a statue of Santa Teresa by Alonso Cano, and
images of saints by J. de Mora.
The Bell Tower is a substitute for the elegant minaret of Abderahman
III. This tower resembled the Giralda of Seville in design, having
lilies and golden balls at its summit. This minaret was despoiled after
the capture of Cordova by the Spanish, and the present tower is the work
of Ruiz. It is surmounted with a figure of Saint Raphael.
Architecturally considered, the Campanario or Belfry of Cordova is an
anomaly.
Apart from its mosque, Cordova contains few buildings of interest to the
stranger. Gautier speaks of the city, once famed for its wonderful
beauty as "le squelette blanché et calcin." The churches demand the
visitor's inspection alone for their instructive evidence of the decline
of architectural taste. San Hipolito is the burial-place of the
historian, Ambrosia de Morales, and the original building dates from the
fourteenth century. San Jacinto has a somewhat handsome doorway, and
Santa Marina is externally ancient. San Nicolas has a pseudo-Moorish
tower.
There are one or two Christian buildings of interest. The bishop's
palace was built originally in the fifteenth century. The Ayuntamiento
or town hall is not a very impressive edifice. Some of the old
residences of the city are in the Mudéjar style, and many have charming
courtyards, with delicate ironwork gates, through which one may peep at
a fountain set among pillars upon which roses twine.
The Renaissance doors of the house of Don Jeronimo Paez and that of the
Foundling Hospital are handsomely decorated; and in the House of Don
Luque, in the Plaza de la Campania, there are some ancient mosaics.
It is worth while to inspect the walls, which have survived a number of
severe sieges, and are still standing, though often repaired. The Gate
of Almodovar and the Tower of Mala Muerte are in good preservation, and
there are instructive examples of Moorish fortification in the turrets
and battlements.
The old Alcazar of the Moors was a noble building of great extent. Very
little of the original structure remains to-day, but one or two towers,
a conduit, and a bath still exist. Alfonso XI. built a modern Alcazar.
On this site stood a Gothic palace, and this was reconstructed by the
caliphs. Historians have described the old Alcazar as a sumptuous
palace, with courts of marble, verdant gardens decked with fountains,
and wonderful apartments, adorned with mosaics and gems. The palace was
heated in winter, and kept temperate in summer with scented air from the
gardens. Here the caliphs surrounded themselves with luxury. Lovely
women resided in the harem, musicians composed and played their melodies
on string instruments; writers recounted romances amid the palms, roses,
and orange-trees, and philosophers discoursed in the courts of marble
and jasper.
The decline of trade in Cordova that followed upon the ravages of Berber
and Christian aroused the dread of the inhabitants that disaster would
result. The citizens who had clamoured for the expulsion of the Moors,
now begged that a few Morisco artisans might be permitted to remain in
the city. All the chief industries of Cordova were decaying. In 1797 De
Bourgoanne writes: "In so fine a climate, in the midst of so many
sources of prosperity, it (Cordova) contains no more than 35,000
inhabitants. Formerly celebrated for its manufactories of silks, fine
cloths, etc. it has now no other industrious occupations but a few
manufactories of ribbons, galoons, hats, and baize."
What a contrast this account affords from that of the Arabian
historians. In the days of Abderahman III. there were fifty thousand
palaces in Cordova, and three hundred mosques of noble architecture. A
palace on arches was built across the river. There were academies,
schools, and libraries in the city of the Ommeyads. To-day there are
thousands of illiterate persons in Spain.
But the Cordovese do not appear to ponder upon time's changes. They
concern themselves with other things--the affairs of the house--and
regard their city with its history and wonderful mosques as a valuable
asset which brings the stranger to their impoverished city. The
Cordovese are a contented people.
On bullfight days Cordova is _en fête_, and all classes of the
inhabitants throng the Plaza de Torres, the hidalgo and the peasant
showing the same enthusiasm for the national sport. Formerly
bull-baiting took place in the Corredera, now used as a market. There is
now a large bull-ring in Cordova, in the Ronda de los Tejares. Near to
the amphitheatre are the public gardens. There is a theatre in the city,
but few other places of amusement.
Cordova is rich in its record of great men. Seneca was born here under
the Roman dominion, and so was Lucan. In the twelfth century, Averroes,
the greatest philosopher of Islamism, was born. His doctrine pervaded
Europe, inciting the fury of the Dominicans, who regarded Averroes as an
arch-blasphemer and infidel. In Paris and in the north of Italy,
however, the Franciscans accepted the philosophy of the learned
Cordovan. But Averroes, the detestation of the Dominican order, is often
depicted in the frescoes of contemporary painters, as a heretic and a
victim of the burning pit. Notwithstanding, Averroism was a fashionable
cult in Venice.
Among the authors of Cordova the poet Gongora must be remembered. He was
born here in 1561, and educated at the college of Salamanca, where he
studied law. Showing little capacity for the law, he turned his
attention to verse, writing satires and lyrics. In later life Gongora's
poetry became stilted and pompous to the point of absurdity. Lope de
Vega, however, held that Luis de Gongora was as great as Seneca or
Lucan.
At the age of forty-five Gongora left his native town, and entered the
Church. In Madrid he was the favourite of Philip III. and of the nobles
of the city. He returned to Cordova when he was sixty-five, and there he
died in 1627.
Gonsalvo, "the Great Captain," was a native of the city, "nursed amid
the din of battle." In the esteem of Spaniards he ranks next to the Cid
in valour and high integrity as a general. Gonsalvo's manners were
described as amiable and conciliatory. He was cool in action,
courageous, and firm. More than once the great captain's life was
imperilled in battle, especially at Granada, where his horse was killed
beneath him. Fernandez Gonsalvo was in the height of his military fame
about the year 1495.
Four painters of note are associated with Cordova. The first in
chronological order was Pedro de Cordova, who executed "the
Annunciation," which is in the Capilla del Santo Cristo of the
cathedral. The picture is in poor preservation. It is interesting as an
example of Gothic art.
Cordova was early a centre of painting in the days of the Christian
recovery of the city. The eminent Pablo de Céspedes was born here in
1538, and became a canon of the cathedral. He studied the Italian
artists, and painted mural pictures in Rome. In the mosque are three of
his works. They are notable for their seriousness and power. Céspedes
was very skilful in colouring.
The remarkable Juan de Valdés Leal, born in 1630, spent most of his life
in Seville, where he was a contemporary of Murillo. In the Church of the
Carmen at Cordova is a retablo representing the "Life of Elijah,"
painted by Valdés Leal. Many of this painter's pictures are in Seville.
The fourth painter of Cordova is Antonio de Castillo, born in 1603, who
was an early exponent of the art of landscape painting in Spain. Some of
his pictures are in the museo of the city. Castillo was said to be an
imitator of Murillo. He died in 1667. The Picture Gallery of Cordova, in
the School of Fine Arts, is not a very important collection of
paintings. There are, however, some of the works of Ribera, Céspedes,
and Castillo, which should be seen. In the museo are a few Moorish
antiquities. The ancient tiles are good examples of the exquisite
Moorish art.
TOLEDO
Since visiting Toledo I have read that masterly novel by Blasco de
Ibañez, "The Cathedral," a work of genius, which has brought the city
vividly to my recollection. I see the old dun-coloured houses on the
slopes, the gorge of the yellow Tagus, and the commanding steeple of the
cathedral, and I recall the Oriental landscape, viewed from the walls,
under a blue, burning sky in June. I know that the goats still wander
forth to their feeding-grounds in the early morning, returning at dusk,
with softly tinkling bells, that the guitar sounds melodious and low
outside the barred window when it is dark, that beggars, wrapped in
tattered cloaks, solicit alms "For the Love of God," and that the voice
of the watchman rings clear at midnight, as he goes his rounds with his
lantern and keys, and a sword at his side.
[Illustration: TOLEDO, 1837.]
"Romantic" is the word that describes Toledo; the setting of the city,
its labyrinthine alleys, its guarded houses, its Moorish fortress,
and its dreaming mood make appeal to the most apathetic of strangers.
The aspect of the city is hardly beautiful. It is too stern, too sombre,
even in sunlight, and it lacks the colour and gaiety of the Andalusian
towns. And yet Toledo is one of the most fascinating cities in Europe,
holding you with a strong spell, a grim, irresistible invitation to
remain within its gates. There is so much to behold, so much to think
upon, in this old Moorish place. The cathedral alone claims long days of
your sojourn, for it is a great monument, haunted with memories, and
richly stored with treasures of art.
Many legends surround the making of Toledo, one of them relating that
Tubal, grandson of Noah, built the city, and another that it was reared
by Jews driven from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. We know, however, that
Toledo was chiefly noted as the stronghold of the Catholic faith in
Spain, that it was in existence in the time of the Romans, held by the
Moors, wrested from them, and restored to the Spanish after many bloody
conflicts, and that it is now the seat of the primate. For four
centuries the Moors held sway here, and everywhere in the city they have
left their traces. Before the Moors, King Roderick the Goth sat on his
throne in the strongly fortified town, and thither came Tarik and his
hordes, coveting the rich capital. Later, the great Abd-er-Rahman
advanced upon Toledo, and laid siege, establishing a mighty camp on the
hillside facing the city, where he waited until famine compelled the
courageous natives to surrender.
In the days of its might Toledo could boast of nearly two hundred
thousand inhabitants. The city lost power when the capital of Spain was
transferred to Valladolid. It is now scarcely more than a museum and
resort of tourists and students of art. The streets are silent and
unfrequented; there is but little evidence of commerce, and the manners
and customs of the people have escaped the influences of to-day. Toledo
is indeed old-world, a veritable relic of antiquity, in spite of its
railway station and large hotel, often thronged with Americans.
The history of Toledo under the Moors is constantly recalled by the
gates, defences, and buildings that remain. We enter Toledo by two
arches and a bridge, over the swirling Tagus, and immediately we are, as
it were, projected into the period of the Moorish conquest. This bridge,
the Puente de Alcantara, was first built by the conquerors, but the
present structure, though Moorish in design, was made in the thirteenth
century. Older is the Puerta del Sol, a work of the Mudéjares, with the
typical horseshoe arches and towers.
The arch of the Zocodover, the bridge of San Martin, and the Church of
Santa Maria la Blanca each show the Moorish spirit in their
architecture. In the Casa de Mesa is a room in the design of the
Mudéjares, the reconciled Moors, who remained and followed their crafts
in Spain, after the reconquest of the country by the Spaniards. The
ceiling is a fine specimen of Arabian art. At the School of Infantry are
further traces of the Moors, while in the Church of El Transito will be
found treasures of the east. Many of the churches have Morisco towers,
such as San Roman, Santo Tomé, San Miguel, and San Servando. Santo Tomé
was once a mosque; it is now a Gothic church. The interior of El Cristo
de la Luz is typically Moorish.
The magnificent cathedral stands on the site of an earlier church which
the Moors shattered, erecting in its place a mosque. In 1227 Fernando
laid the stone of the present edifice; and over two hundred years were
spent in the labour of erecting and adorning it, while vast wealth was
employed in the work, and thousands of artists, craftsmen and labourers
employed. Under Mendoza and other prelates, Flemish artists worked in
the cathedral.
The architecture is Gothic, with many traces of Baroque and Mudéjar art.
There is a very lofty and beautiful tower, with a steeple surmounting
it. The flying buttresses are exceedingly graceful; the eight doorways
of great beauty. A splendid façade, with a wealth of statues, faces the
west. It has three portals and a fine rose window, and is flanked by
towers. The Puerta de los Leones is noble Renaissance work, splendidly
sculptured with rich ornaments.
Entering the cathedral we are impressed by its vastness and the
simplicity of the aisles. But the numerous chapels are highly ornamented
in a bewildering variety of styles. The hand of the artist has been
lavish. We are dazzled, astonished, by the wealth of decoration, the
carving, the metal work, the jewels, the colouring. The choir stalls are
very beautifully carved work by Borgoña and Berruguéte. The choir, with
its jasper columns and decorations, is impressive. The carving of the
stalls is superb.
How shall the visitor know where to turn for those objects that appeal
to him, amid such a wealth of treasures? There are twenty-seven side
chapels besides the chief chapel, and in all of them are works of art
that will repay inspection. The retablo of the principal chapel is a
gorgeous piece of work upon which many artists expended their labour and
skill. Cardinal de Mendoza was buried here in 1495.
The Capilla de Santiago is Gothic, and splendidly decorated. There is a
superb retablo in this chapel. In the Capilla Mozarabe there is a
painting by Juan de Borgoña. This was the chapel built for Cardinal
Ximénez, and it is handsomely ornamented. Another of Borgoña's works
will be seen in the Capella de San Eugénio, an altarpiece representing
scenes in the life of Christ.
In the Sacristia is a notable work painted by El Greco, whose paintings
we shall presently see in the gallery. The subject of this picture is
"Casting Lots for the Raiment of the Saviour." "The Betrayal of Christ,"
by Goya, is another important painting in the Sacristia.
In the cloisters we shall find some frescoes by Bayeu, representing
incidents in the lives of several saints. Francisco Bayeu (1734-1795),
who so often worked with Maella, was not a great artist, though he was
commissioned to paint mural pictures in many parts of Spain.
The City Hall (Ayuntamiento) was first erected in the fifteenth century,
and has an ornate frontage. The portraits of Charles II. and Marianne
within the hall were painted by Carreño, a pupil of Velazquez.
Proudly perched above the city is the Alcazar, a stout fortress of the
Goths, the residence of the mighty Cid, and afterwards a palace of
kings. The old building was almost destroyed during the war of 1710, but
was restored some years later. It was attacked and damaged in the wars
with France, and little of the pristine edifice remains except the
eastern façade.
Toledo was the scene of fierce persecution during the Inquisition. In
1560 there was a burning of heretics in the city, a display arranged for
the entertainment of the young queen, Elizabeth de Valois. Several
Lutherans were committed to the flames on this occasion.
In the days of ecclesiastic splendour, the wealth of the cathedral of
Toledo was enormous. There were six hundred clerics in the city, and
the revenues of the high dignitaries were said to amount to a hundred
thousand pounds. The first archbishop was Don Bernardo, who broke faith
with the Moors by desecrating the sacred objects which they were
permitted to retain in their mosque.
The excellence of the sword blades of Toledan steel were known all over
Europe. To-day the sword-making industry is scarcely flourishing, and
Théophile Gautier was unable during his visit to purchase a weapon as a
memento. "There are no more swords at Toledo," he writes, "than leather
at Cordova, lace at Mechlin, oysters at Ostend, or _pâtés de foie gras_
at Strasburg." According to Henry O'Shea, in his "Guide to Spain," sword
blades were made in Toledo in his day, but he states that the quality of
the steel had deteriorated.