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Transcriber’s notes:
Italic and underscored text is denoted _thus_.
Bold text is denoted =thus=.
Superscript text is shown ^{thus}
The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the
original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been
corrected.
In Chapter XII., note below Table 6.
... and of the Empty Bobbin 71 ozs.
This should probably read:—
... and of the Empty Bobbin 0·71 ozs.
This has been changed accordingly.
MODERN COTTON SPINNING MACHINERY,
ITS PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION.
BY
JOSEPH NASMITH,
ASSOCIATE INSTITUTION MECHANICAL ENGINEERS,
MEMBER MANCHESTER ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERS, ETC.
WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS.
MANCHESTER:
JOSEPH NASMITH, 4, ARCADE CHAMBERS, ST. MARY’S GATE;
JOHN HEYWOOD, RIDGEFIELD AND DEANSGATE.
LONDON:
E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND; AND 12, CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YORK.
1890.
[COPYRIGHT.—ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.]
PREFACE.
In submitting the following pages to the judgment of the public, the
Author does not pretend to have written an exhaustive treatise. This
would require a volume much larger than the present. It has rather
been his aim to treat a branch of the subject thoroughly, which has
hitherto had scant justice done to it. While the market is flooded
with books detailing the rules by which speeds are calculated, and the
necessary wheel changes made, those dealing with the construction of
the machinery employed are few in number. This is the more singular,
because England is, beyond doubt, the true mother of this department of
mechanics, and to-day her textile machinists head the lists alike for
excellence of production and fertility of invention.
Since the issue of the late Mr. Evan Leigh’s “Science of Modern Cotton
Spinning”—comparatively a long time ago—no book has appeared which
treats the subject from the machinist’s point of view. The well known
book of Mr. Richard Marsden, “A Handbook of Cotton Spinning,” as
its name implies, deals more with the operation than the machinery,
although the latter is described in considerable detail. In the present
work, while it has been impossible to avoid saying something of
spinning, the enunciation of the principles on which the machinery is
constructed forms its _raison d’être_. On the Continent, more than one
ponderous treatise has been published, which possess the peculiarity
of foreign technical works in the disproportionate way in which the
small details are treated. While this is valuable from the professorial
point of view, it is apt to be prejudicial in actual practice, because
the operation of these details varies considerably at different times.
The avoidance of pedantry is very essential in any book dealing with
practical work, and with this in view, the Author has endeavoured,
while fully considering every principle involved, to do so in a plain
manner, which will be readily understood. It has rather been the aim
to suggest the inferences to be drawn than to dogmatically state
inflexible rules.
The whole of the machines have been considered fully, and the most
important modifications described. The preparation of the drawings has
been a long labour, but the Author believes they have not hitherto been
so fully given in any English work. In order to keep the book within
bounds, it has been almost rigidly confined to a consideration of the
art of textile mechanics as applied to the spinning of cotton to-day.
It is believed that the book will provide an accurate account of the
state of present knowledge, and will be valuable for that reason.
It should be distinctly understood that the mention of any machinist
does not imply any approval or otherwise of his particular appliance,
but is simply given in order to identify the maker of it, which it is
only fair to do. The Author’s opinions can be easily gathered, but it
is no part of the scheme to enter into controversy about different
methods, or to make the book a treatise on comparative textile
mechanics.
The Author desires to thank all those firms who have aided him by
the loan of drawings, or in other ways. Without this aid the labour
involved would have been largely increased. Thanks are due to Signor
Alfredo Galassini and the Director of the Unione Tipografico-Editrice
of Turin for permission to reproduce some of the drawings relating to
Messrs. Platt Brothers and Co.’s mule, which will be found in Chapter
XI. These had appeared in the “Enciclopedia Delle Arti E Industrie,”
and were so much in accord with the treatment the Author had resolved
to give that machine, that the permission to use them was of great
service. The special thanks of the Author are also due to Mr. B. A.
Dobson for the permission to reproduce two photographs of a lap, given
in Chapter VI., and other drawings from his pamphlet on “Carding.” In
conclusion, before leaving the book to the indulgent judgment of his
readers, the Author wishes to say that the proofs have been read by
gentlemen conversant with the whole of the details, and every care has
been taken to make it at once accurate and instructive.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Introductory 5
CHAPTER II.
The Structure of Cotton 12
CHAPTER III.
Ginning and Mixing Machines 15
CHAPTER IV.
The Opening Machine 23
CHAPTER V.
The Scutching Machine 35
CHAPTER VI.
The Carding Machine 53
CHAPTER VII.
Card Clothing, Grinding, and Stripping Machines 91
CHAPTER VIII.
The Combing Machine 120
CHAPTER IX.
The Drawing Machine 137
CHAPTER X.
Slubbing and Roving Machines 147
CHAPTER XI.
The Mule 176
CHAPTER XII.
The Ring Spinning Machine 234
CHAPTER XIII.
Reeling, Winding, Gassing, and Spooling Machines 262
CHAPTER XIV.
Miscellaneous Machines and Accessories 282
Appendix 297
List of Illustrations 301
Glossary 308
General Index 309
ERRATA.
The reader is requested to make the alterations enumerated below at
once in order to prevent any misunderstanding.
On page 51, end of line 23, for “it” read “is.”
On page 66, line 15, for “Fig. 51” read “Fig. 52.”
On page 162, third line from bottom, for “n = b - 21”
read “n = 21 - b.”
On page 163, line 7, for “n = 250 - 2 (250÷40)”
read “n = - 250 - 2 (250÷40).”
On page 165, second line from bottom, for “=G=” read “=E=.”
On page 210, line 3, for “=B=” read “=D=.”
On page 212, end of last line, for “fallen” read “faller.”
On page 267, line 4, for “straps” read “shafts.”
The author is fully conscious of many shortcomings, which are
inevitable in a task of this magnitude, but he believes that
something has been done to formulate present knowledge and practice.
Any suggestions of improvements or enlargements will be gratefully
received, so as to enable future issues to be more valuable and
useful.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
(1) The rapid growth of the cotton trade is in no small degree due to
the exertions and ingenuity of the engineers and machinists who have
devoted themselves to the subject. It is remarkable how few of the
later inventions, at any rate, are those of persons actually engaged
in the operations of spinning or weaving. It is quite true that James
Smith, of Deauston, forms a conspicuous exception, and that many others
could be also named who were at once manufacturers and mechanicians,
but the general fact is as stated. To-day, the spinner, who is in a
difficulty requiring a mechanical solution, turns the whole matter over
to the machinist, who puzzles it out without, in many cases, getting
his due reward. It is, however, a general practice for machinists to
originate improvements, and the competition in this respect is so keen,
that a spinner is never at a loss for a choice of appliances.
(2) In the early part of the century it was no uncommon thing to find
textile machines made in a workshop where engines, machine tools, and
other forms of machinery were also constructed. For about the last
forty years this practice has ceased, and it is now the universal
custom to make textile machines only, in any works where they are
produced. This practice has led to a subdivision, not only of labour,
but of procedure, which enables good results to be attained. The
machine of to-day, although not absolutely, is comparatively, cheaper,
and is constructed in a way that even thirty years ago would have been
deemed impossible. When the author was an apprentice, about twenty
years since, the fitting of cotton machinery was a byeword to the
engineer and tool maker. To-day, it would be difficult to find more
accurate workmanship or sounder construction in any machine of whatever
kind.
(3) This is a matter of more importance than might be supposed. The
cotton spinning machine making trade in England is a very extensive
one, finding employment in Lancashire alone for not less than 25,000
men and boys. This does not include the large number of persons
employed in the various businesses which are allied to it, such as
spindle and card clothing manufactories. The field for spinning
machines is ever enlarging, the possible extent of the cotton industry
being enormous. The number of spindles at work in Great Britain exceeds
44,000,000; on the Continent the number is about 23,800,000; in the
United States 14,500,000; and in India and Japan it exceeds 3,000,000.
These figures, which are approximate only, give a grand total of
85,300,000 spindles, which may all be said to have sprung into being
during the present century. Assuming the value of a mill to be equal
to 21 shillings per spindle in England, the fixed capital embarked in
this branch of the trade alone is £44,220,000. If the very moderate
amount of 20 per cent be added to this for working capital, the sum
invested in cotton spinning concerns in this country is not less than
£53,000,000. The cost per spindle in other countries is much in excess
of the amount stated above, being in many cases doubled. In the United
States the cost of a fully equipped spinning-mill ranges from 40 to
42 shillings per spindle, and the capital needed for working is also
greater than in this country. On the Continent, and in India, the cost
per spindle will be less than in America, but the working expenses are
also higher than in Great Britain. In thus stating the facts it is
impossible to accurately fix the capital employed, but it will probably
approach in the aggregate £150,000,000 for spinning mills alone.
(4) The foregoing figures, which are very briefly put, are sufficient
to show the magnitude of the industry for which spinning machinists
cater. But there is another aspect of the question which is noteworthy,
and illustrative of the effect of the work of machine makers. This is
the large increase in the productive capacity of the machinery. The
production of a self-acting mule in 1835 is given in the following
statement, issued by the eminent firm of Sharp, Roberts and Co., and
extracted from Dr. Ure’s work on “Cotton Spinning.”
“Statement of the quantity of Yarn produced on Messrs. Sharp, Roberts
& Co.’s self-acting mules in twelve working hours, including the usual
stoppages connected with spinning, estimated on the average of upwards
of 20 mills:—
No. of hanks per spindle.
No. of yarn. Twist. Weft.
16’s 4-1/2 4-7/8
24’s 4-1/4 4-5/8
32’s 4 4-3/8
40’s 3-3/4 4-1/8”
This statement is dated December 23rd, 1834, so that it may fairly
serve as a basis of comparison, assuming the number of turns of yarn to
be in each case the same. Testing the advance by taking the production
of 32’s, as stated above, the amount spun per spindle in a working
week of 50-1/2 hours—its present duration—would be 18-2/3 hanks. Mules
at that period were only made 400 to 500 spindles long. To-day they
contain over 1,200 spindles, and produce of 32’s 32-1/2 hanks per
spindle. This is an increase of 60 per cent.
(5) The increase of production has not, however, required a larger
number of workpeople to obtain. On the other hand, fewer persons are
needed to attend to the long mules named than were formerly required
for less than half the number of spindles. The effect of this is
seen in the decreased margin between cotton and yarns, which is very
striking. The average price of 30’s twist yarn in 1832 is stated in
Dr. Ure to be 12·7d. per lb., and of cotton 7·1d., leaving a margin of
5·6d. At the time of writing the price of 32’s twist is 8-11/16d., and
of cotton 6-9/16d. per lb., leaving a margin of 2-1/8d. These figures
are based upon the assumption that American cotton of middling quality
is used in each case. Thus the price of yarn is much less, while that
of cotton is little reduced. It is true that a margin of 2-1/8d. is
barely sufficient to permit of a profit being made, but 1/8d. per lb.
added will do 80, and a margin of 2-1/2d. is considered a large one in
these days.
(6) This reduction in the cost of production has not been brought about
by any diminution in the wages of the operatives, as could very clearly
be shown if it were necessary. Nor is it the result of a lessened cost
of erection. A spinning mill of 40,000 spindles, which in 1835 would be
looked upon as a large one, cost, at that time, from 24 to 26 shillings
per spindle to erect, including the buildings and accessories. At the
present time mills are built to contain as many as 110,000 spindles,
and these are filled ready for work at a cost not exceeding 21
shillings per spindle, the apportionment of which is as follows: The
machinery costs nine shillings, the buildings eight shillings, and the
engines, boilers, furnishings, and all accessories four shillings per
spindle. Considering the great increase in the productive power of the
machinery, the fact that it is so much less expensive to work, and
that each machine is of much greater capacity, the figures given show
that the tendency towards diminished cost is owing very largely to the
efforts of machine makers.
(7) It is not necessary to pursue this matter further, as the
present work is not intended as a statistical abstract, but the
few facts stated show that in the general march of improvement the
textile mechanic has not been idle. A consideration of the methods
of construction adopted to-day, as compared with those in vogue even
so recently as twenty years ago, will further demonstrate this fact.
Formerly the work of construction was very largely if not mainly
carried out by fitters who were engaged in manually shaping the
brackets and fitting them to the frames. The brackets were formed with
feet, on which were cast nipples or projections. These were used to
reduce the labour in filing, and, as the bracket was always fitted on
to the face produced in the ordinary operation of casting, it will
be seen that anything tending to diminish the work of fitting was
valuable. But as the bedding of the brackets was dependent upon the
proper shaping of a few points, the tendency to slip was considerable.
Although, by being always engaged in fitting a few patterns of
brackets, the workmen became extraordinarily expert, the method was
at best an uncertain one, and did not lead to the rigidity absolutely
essential in high-speed machines.
(8) All this is now changed, and the machine tool enables the work to
be at once more expeditiously and economically carried out. The labours
of mechanics of precision, like the late Sir Joseph Whitworth, are
bearing fruit, and the effect is seen in the comparative excellence
of the product. The solidity of English machinery has been sometimes
scoffed at by Continental and American rivals, but it would be
difficult to find any which runs at higher velocities with greater
steadiness and less repairs. It cannot be too often insisted on
that the rigidity which arises from mere weight is by no means an
unimportant quality. Of course, there are limits to this as to every
other principle, but generally it is a true one. Of quite as much
importance is the rigidity which comes from sound construction; and
in this respect modern spinning machinery is remarkable. Instead of
a framing built up by hand with its various pieces manually fitted,
it is now made in a much more enduring way. Raised faces are formed
on the framing, which are planed or milled, so as to be quite true.
To these the cross-beams or bars, the ends of which are similarly
treated, are bolted. Thus, instead of the contact of several narrow
faces, two broad plane surfaces are bolted together, and it will be
easily seen how much more solid the framing will be in consequence.
Again, in lieu of each part being at once like and unlike, as must
necessarily happen when it is hand-fitted, it is now shaped by special
machinery to templates, thus being interchangeable. The rails or beams
to which bearings, brackets, or spindles are to be attached are
planed or milled accurately on their surfaces, so that the long and
unsatisfactory labour of fitting each piece separately is substituted
by a true mechanical process. The advent of the milling machine and the
discovery of the wonderful economic power of the circular cutter has
had a wide-reaching influence. In brief, the present is an age of an
increased development of machine instead of manual treatment, which has
gone far to revolutionise the machinery used in spinning. Every student
who may hereafter be engaged in the construction of this class of
machinery should impress firmly upon his mind the fact that the machine
tool is the best instrument for his purpose, and should develop it as
far as possible. A special tool is invaluable, and the opportunities
for its use are always increasing.
(9) A comparison of the speeds of various machines will demonstrate
the value of improved construction. Mule spindles, which in 1834 were
run at a maximum velocity of 4,500 revolutions per minute, are now
revolved 11,000 times per minute with much greater ease and freedom
from vibration. The throstle spindles running at a speed of 4,500
revolutions, are superseded by ring spindles, which rotate from
9,000 to 11,000 times per minute. As shown in Chapter XII, it would
be impossible to attain such a velocity unless the spindles were
accurately constructed by special tools. Although the mechanism of a
ring spindle is much more elaborate than that of a throstle spindle,
the cost of the one but little exceeds that of the other. Again, a
carding engine cylinder, formerly made of wood, and running 80 to
100 revolutions, is now constructed entirely of iron, and revolved
at from 160 to 180 times per minute. In spite of this increase it
is more free from vibration than its slower running predecessor. A
similar comparison can be made of every machine with like results,
but it is not necessary. Enough has been said to show the important
part played by the machinist, to whom, as was pointed out in paragraph
1, most of the credit is due. The economical improvement which is
noticeable in the condition of the workpeople is largely the result
of the improvements made in the machinery. In fewer hours more work
can be turned out, and this with a constantly decreasing strain upon
the operatives. The breakage of the fibres in the various stages of
manufacture is reduced to a very low point, with the twofold advantage
of diminished waste and decreased labour.
(10) A modern mill differs from its immediate predecessor, not only
in the quality of the machinery but in its general construction. The
height and width of the whole building have materially increased, and
the result is that the rooms in which the operations of spinning are
conducted are both lighter and more airy. The building is usually made
as far as possible fire-proof, and is of very substantial design and
construction. The larger number of spindles in a mill necessarily imply
greater capacity, but there is no comparison between the low-ceilinged,
imperfectly lighted and ventilated rooms of the last generation with
the airy and light erections of to-day. The sanitary arrangements are
infinitely superior, and there is a noticeable improvement in the
health and physique of the workpeople arising therefrom.
(11) Among the features which deserve mention is the improved type of
engines used. In lieu of the old-fashioned beam engine, compounded
or otherwise, working at a steam pressure of 50lb. or less, the
modern engine is of the horizontal type. The favourite class for mill
driving is the tandem compound, in which the high pressure cylinder is
behind the low-pressure, but on the same bed. Latterly the vertical
triple expansion engine has been adopted in a few cases, and there
is a continual tendency towards higher steam pressures and more
expansions. The introduction of steel boiler plates has rendered the
construction of steam boilers for high pressures much more easy, and
the author has seen a Lancashire boiler, intended for habitual use at
a pressure of 220lb., tested with highly satisfactory results. Within
limits, therefore, there is room for a further increase from the normal
working pressure of 80lb. The steam-engines used are mostly of the
Corliss type, with quick cut-off gear of high efficiency, and they are
constructed to develop in many cases from 1,000 to 2,000 horsepower.
The water used for condensing purposes is stored in reservoirs or
“lodges,” from which it is drawn as required. It is sometimes difficult
to cool it sufficiently to get a good vacuum, owing to the fact that
the cooling and storage space is insufficient. For this purpose a
type of condenser known as Theisen’s, which has been largely adopted
in Germany and is now being introduced into this country, will be of
value. It is arranged as a surface condenser, the steam passing through
the tubes and being cooled by water surrounding them. In lieu of giving
the water a circulatory movement it always remains in one position, any
loss by evaporation being replaced. Between each vertical row of pipes
cast-iron discs revolve, which are fixed on a shaft suitably driven.
As each disc dips into the water—which is usually about 160 deg. F.—it
picks up a thin film and carries it round in its revolution. At the
upper part of the case, in which the discs revolve, an air propeller is
fixed, which sends a current of air past and through the spaces between
the discs. This leads to a rapid cooling of the disc and its water
film, the heat absorbed by the water being in this way dissipated. The
action is one of evaporative cooling, of which many instances abound,
and is very effective. An equal weight of water will effectually
condense any given volume of steam, and this quantity is not difficult
to find in most places. The results obtained by the Union Engineering
Company in this country have been satisfactory, and there appears to
be no doubt as to the efficacy of the machine. Steadiness of rotation
is a _sine qua non_ in mill engines, a very slight difference in their
velocity having a great effect upon the work of the mill. This is now
attained in most cases with certainty, and by means of the Moscrop
Recorder—an instrument denoting graphically the changes of speed—a
very salutary check is kept upon the engineer. In order to prevent any
variations occurring high-speed governors are largely employed, and in
some cases their action is aided by special means, such as Knowles’s
supplementary governor or Higginson’s patent regulator. Either of these
appliances give good results, and the last named is very simple and
effective.
(12) Up to within 15 or 20 years ago the most common mode of
transmitting the power developed by the steam engine was by means of
toothed gearing. About that period the American method of driving by
a series of broad belts was introduced and for a time was largely
adopted. When toothed gearing was used the power was conveyed to the
various flats or storeys of the mill by means of an upright shaft, on
which were bevel wheels gearing with others on the line shafts. The
introduction of belt driving led to a system of transmitting the power
to the main shaft in each room independently of its fellows, and this
system found further development when driving by a series of ropes was
adopted a short time afterwards. In this case the power is taken off
by a number of ropes working in the grooves of a large pulley on the
engine shaft and of smaller ones fixed on the line shafts. This is
now the favourite method of driving and is more extensively adopted
than any other. The reason for this is principally the ease with which
breakdowns can be guarded against. If a rope breaks it falls into the
race, and in rare instances does it become entangled. It is only
necessary to replace it, and any delay thus caused is not great.
(13) As the question of driving is a somewhat important one a few
remarks may be made on it. There is no doubt that toothed gearing
properly constructed forms the most economical method, the loss of
power in transmission not exceeding 2-1/2 per cent. In constructing
wheels for this purpose care should be taken that the tooth is not too
long, 5/8ths of the pitch being a sufficient length. Next to toothed
wheels for economy belts may be placed. The loss in transmission
varies, if the belts are properly applied, from three to five per cent.
A good speed for leather belts is 3,000 feet per minute if they are
single, and 4,000 feet if double. Rope driving is the least economical
of the three methods, this arising from a variety of causes. Chief
among these is the difficulty of maintaining an equal diameter in
every rope of the series, which leads to a difference in their driving
power, owing to their unequal engagement with the V grooves. Another
cause of this loss of power is found in the fact that they jam in the
grooves and have to be forcibly extracted as the pulleys revolve. The
following rules laid down by Mr. Alexander Rea in a discussion, at a
meeting of the Manchester Association of Engineers, on the subject
of the comparative merits of the three systems of driving, are worth
reproducing.
“The ropes should not be too large in diameter; it is much safer to
use 25 1-3/4 inch ropes than 20 2 inch diameter ropes. The tension in
the several ropes should be kept as low as possible. The power should
be subdivided to different points. The centres of the several shafts
should be kept well apart. The pulleys should be large in diameter. The
best speed for the ropes is from 4,000 to 6,000 feet per minute. Care
should be taken in turning the V groove pulleys; the best angle for
these is now found to be 45 degrees.”
(14) As this subject of rope driving is an interesting one, it is
worth noting that Mr. George Goodfellow, of Hyde, who has had a wide
experience in this matter, confirms the advice as to small diameter
of ropes. In the same discussion he stated that he did not now use
larger diameters than 1-3/4 inch, and had ropes running successfully,
the diameter of which was only 1-1/4 inches. Mr. James Hartley also
bore out this experience. By the reduction of ropes from 2 inches to
1-1/4 inches diameter the friction diagram from the engine had been
materially reduced, indicating a saving of power. Mr. J. H. Ratcliffe,
of Dukinfield, has recently revived a method by which, instead of using
a series of ropes, he uses one only, this being endless, and being
wrapped spirally on the pulleys. At one point the slack is taken up
by a compensating apparatus, so that the whole of the coils are tight
back and front instead of having one side slack and bellying. For
this arrangement Mr. Ratcliffe claims that it materially reduces the
friction diagram, inasmuch as there is no necessity to drag the rope
forcibly out of the grooves at each revolution. It is not necessary for
a detailed examination of this subject to be made, but the hints given
will probably prove useful to many readers.
(15) It is essential, owing to the peculiar structure of the cotton
fibre, to which reference will be made in the next chapter, that the
rooms in which spinning is conducted should be heated to a certain
temperature. Closely allied to this question is that of humidification.
It is not only essential to have heat, but that must be accompanied
by a certain amount of moisture, a point which is often neglected.
Spinning rooms are often heated to over 90° F., which is quite
unnecessary, and is, moreover, detrimental to good work. At such a
temperature much of the natural moisture of the cotton is extracted,
and the fibre becomes harsh and brittle. A temperature of from 75° to
80° F., with a humidity of about 75 percent, is absolutely the best
condition for spinning. The question is an important one, and deserves
greater consideration at the hands of spinners. The artificial heat
required is now obtained by the use of wrought-iron steam pipes,
through which high-pressure steam is passed. The radiation from these
is much greater than from cast-iron pipes of larger diameter filled
with low-pressure steam.
(16) Having thus briefly glanced at some of the chief features of
modern practice, it is now only necessary to say that the utmost
cleanliness is absolutely essential to good working. The manipulation
of the cotton is now so largely automatically performed that there is
much less difficulty in keeping a mill clean than formerly. It should
be the aim of every spinner to diminish the handling of the material as
much as possible, and students of this subject should remember that it
is never too early to begin to deal with the cotton so as to prepare it
for subsequent treatment. Efficient purification at an early stage is a
great help towards economical and efficient spinning. In conclusion, it
may be remarked that one of the worst faults in studying a subject of
this sort is any kind of crystallised thought. The conditions of work
vary from day to day, and there are wise variations in procedure which
can easily be discovered by the observant mind. This watchful attitude
is the proper one to cultivate, and the succeeding pages are written
in the hope that they will lead some reader to a deeper and closer
observation of the facts which are discoverable in the actual work of
construction or spinning.
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