[Footnote 2: A glossary of Eskimo geographic terms will be found
on p. 662]
The Eskimo inhabit almost the whole extent of the coast of Arctic
America. A large part of this country is occupied by the Central Eskimo,
one of the great groups into which that people is divided. They live in
the northeastern part of the continent and on the eastern islands of the
Arctic-American Archipelago. In Smith Sound they inhabit the most
northern countries visited by man and their remains are even found at
its northern outlet. The southern and western boundaries of this
district are the countries about Fort Churchill, the middle part of Back
River, and the coast west of Adelaide Peninsula. Along the whole extent
of this line they are the neighbors of Indian tribes, with whom they are
generally on very bad terms, a mutual distrust existing between the two
races.
The geography of the whole country is known only in outline, and a great
portion of it awaits its explorer. Following is a sketch of what is
known about it, so far as it is of importance to the ethnologist.
The vast basin of Hudson Bay separates two large portions of the
American continent: Labrador and the region of the large Arctic rivers.
The southern shore of the bay is inhabited by Indian tribes who
interrupt the communication between the Eskimo of both regions. Hudson
Bay, however, has the character of a true mediterranean sea, the
northern parts of its opposite shores being connected by a number of
islands and peninsulas. The low and narrow Rae Isthmus, which presents
an easy passage to the Arctic Ocean, unites Melville Peninsula to the
main body of the continent. From this peninsula Baffin Land stretches
out toward the north of Labrador, with only two narrow channels
intervening: Fury and Hecla Strait and Hudson Strait. Another chain of
islands, formed by the parts of Southampton Island and Mansfield Island,
stretches from Repulse Bay to the northwest point of Labrador, but the
distances between the islands and the roughness of the sea prevent
communication.
On the western part of the continent the great bays, Chesterfield Inlet
and Wager River, are of importance, as they allow the Eskimo, though
they are a coast people, to penetrate into the interior of the
continent. A narrow isthmus separates the head of the bays from the
lakes of Back River. At Coronation Bay the latter approaches the Arctic
Ocean very closely, and it is probable that the coast west of Adelaide
Peninsula, which is skirted by innumerable islands, is indented by deep
inlets extending towards the lakes of Back River. Thus communication
between the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay is facilitated by this large
river, which yields an abundant supply of fish. From Wager River an
isthmus leads to its estuary.
Boothia Felix, the most northern peninsula of the continent, is united
to it by two narrow isthmuses, the former extending from Pelly Bay to
Shepherd Bay, the latter from Lord Mayor Bay to Spence Bay. It is
separated from North Somerset by the narrow Bellot Strait. Farther west
Adelaide Peninsula and King William Land form the continuation of the
continent toward the western extremity of Boothia, thus outlining a
spacious bay sheltered from the currents and the pack ice of Melville
Sound and the adjoining bays. The eastern sides of Boothia and North
Somerset and the western coasts of Melville Peninsula and Baffin Land
form a gulf similar to Fox Basin.
Farther north, between Baffin Land and Greenland, North Devon and
Ellesmere Land are situated. Thus Baffin Land forms a connecting link
for three regions inhabited by Eskimo: the Hudson Bay Territory,
Labrador, and Greenland.
The orography of the western coast of Hudson Bay is little known. Most
of this coast seems to form a hilly land, consisting generally of
granite. Between Wager River and Chesterfield Inlet it rises to a chain
of hills of about one thousand feet in height, extending to a plateau
farther north. Another chain seems to stretch in a northeasterly
direction from Back River to the source of Hayes River. West of Back
River Silurian strata prevail. The granite hills form a favorite haunt
for the musk ox and reindeer.
Melville Peninsula consists chiefly of a chain of granite hills, sloping
down to a Silurian plain in the eastern part of the peninsula. The
northeastern part of Baffin Land is formed by a high chain of mountains
stretching from Lancaster Sound to Cape Mercy. Long fjords and deep
valleys divide them into many groups. Bylot Island, which stands high
out of the sea, is separated from the mainland by Pond Bay and Eclipse
Sound. The next group stretches from Pond Bay to the fjord of
Anaulereë´ling. Farther to the southeast the groups are smaller, and in
Home Bay they are separated by wide valleys, particularly near
Eχalualuin, a large fjord on the southern side of that bay.
From this fjord an enormous highland, which I named Penny Highland,
extends as far as Cumberland Sound, being terminated by the narrow
valley of Pangnirtung. The eastern boundary runs through the fjords
Maktartudjennaq and Narpaing to Nedluqseaq and Nudlung. In the interior
it may extend to about fifteen miles east of Issortuqdjuaq, the most
northern fjord of Cumberland Sound. The whole of the vast highland is
covered by an ice cap sending forth numerous glaciers in every
direction. In Pangnirtung and on Davis Strait they reach the level of
the sea.
Penny Highland, which forms the main body of Cumberland Peninsula, has
attached to it a few mountain groups of moderate extent: the peninsula
of Nudlung and the highland of Eχalualuin and that of Qivitung.
Farther southeast, between the valleys of Pangnirtung and
Kingnait-Padli, is situated the highland of Kingnait, with sharp peaks
emerging from the ice cap which covers the lower parts of the plateau.
The rest of Cumberland Peninsula is formed by the highland of Saumia,
which much resembles that of Kingnait. Near Cape Mercy the ice covered
highland slopes down to a hilly region, which falls abruptly to the sea.
The southern parts of this range of mountains are composed of gneiss and
granite. It may be that Silurian strata occur in some places, but they
have not yet been found anywhere in situ. The northern parts are too
imperfectly known to enable us to form an idea of their geological
character.
The mountains just described slope down to a hilly region, which farther
to the west levels off to a plain. The hills are composed of granite,
the plains of Silurian limestone, which extends from Prince Regent Inlet
to the head of Frobisher Bay.
The peninsula between Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay is formed by a
plateau, which slopes down gradually to the northwest. It is drained by
a great river flowing into Auqardneling, a fjord on the western shore of
Cumberland Sound. Near Lake Nettilling the country is very low, the
level of the lake being only forty feet above that of the sea. Here the
watershed between Cumberland Sound and Fox Basin closely approaches the
eastern shore, coming within five miles of the head of Nettilling Fjord.
It is formed by a narrow neck of land about a quarter of a mile wide and
sixty-five feet above the level of the sea.
From Eskimo reports I conclude that the plateau of Nugumiut, as we may
call the peninsula between Frobisher Bay and Cumberland Sound, is
comparatively level. Only a single mountain south of Qasigidjen (Bear
Sound) rises into the region of eternal snow.
The peninsula between Frobisher Bay and Hudson Strait is formed by a
granite highland, the Meta Incognita of Queen Elizabeth. It is covered
with ice and sends a few glaciers into the sea. Farther west, near
Lesseps Bay and White Bear Sound, the country becomes lower. The narrow
isthmus leading from Hudson Strait to Amaqdjuaq cannot be very high, as
the Eskimo carry their kayaks to the lake, which I believe is about two
hundred feet above the level of the sea.
Last of all I have to mention the highlands of King Cape. The rest of
the land is taken up by a vast plain in which two large lakes are
situated; the southern, Amaqdjuaq, empties by a short river into Lake
Nettilling, whence the long and wide Koukdjuaq runs to the shallow sea.
From observations made by Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., and
information obtained from the Eskimo, we learn that the whole of the
eastern part of Fox Basin is extremely shallow and that there are many
low islands scattered about in those parts of the sea. The plains of
Baffin Land, Fox Basin, and the eastern half of Melville Peninsula may
be considered a wide basin of Silurian strata bordered by granitic
elevations on every side.
Besides the configuration of the land, the extent of the land ice formed
during the winter is of vital importance to the inhabitants of the
Arctic region, because during the greater part of the year it affords
the only means of communication between the tribes, and because in
winter the seal, which constitutes the principal food of the Eskimo,
takes to those parts of the coast where extensive floes are formed.
Therefore the state of the ice regulates the distribution of the natives
during the greater part of the year and must be considered in studying
the habits of the Eskimo. The extent of the land ice principally depends
on the configuration of the land and the strength of the currents. On a
shore exposed to a strong current an extensive floe can only be formed
where projecting points of land form deep bays. We find the distribution
of ice regulated in accordance with this fact all around the shores of
the Arctic Ocean.
The strong current setting out of Lancaster Sound and Smith Sound
generally prevents ice from forming under the steep cliffs of the land.
Sometimes the pack ice of the sounds is stopped and freezes together
into rough floes; a smooth plain is never formed. By far the largest
land floe is formed from Bylot Island to Cape Dyer (Okan). In Home Bay
it extends to a distance of about eighty miles from the mainland. The
formation of this floe is favored by a number of shoals which extend
from the peninsulas of Cape Eglinton (Aqojang), Cape Aston
(Niaqonaujang), and Qivitung, for the large floes drifting south are
stopped by the icebergs aground on these banks. The greater part of the
floe is very rough, smooth ice prevailing only in the bays.
The strong southerly current passing through the narrowest part of Davis
Strait between Cape Walsingham (Idjuk) and Holsteinborg breaks up the
ice all along the shore from Cape Dyer to Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound
alone being covered by a larger floe. The bay between Cape Mickleham
(Nuvuktirpang) and Cape Mercy is well covered with ice, which extends to
the islands farthest out toward the sea.
Near Cape Mercy the strong tides caused by Cumberland Sound prevent the
ice from consolidating in the entrance of the gulf. As the sound widens
greatly behind the narrow passage formed by Nuvukdjuaq and Qaχodluin,
the tide sets in with great force. For this reason the floe never
extends beyond that narrow entrance. Often the head of the open water
runs from Qeqerten to Nuvujen, and instances are known where it even
reaches the line of Pujetung-Umanaq.
The southwestern shore of Cumberland Sound from Qaχodluin to Cape
Brevoort (Qeqertuqdjuaq) is always washed by water, because a strong
current, which often breaks up the ice of Field and Grinnell Bay (the
bays of Ukadliq and Nugumiut), sets along the coast.
The floe seldom extends to Lady Franklin and Monumental Islands
(Kitigtung and Taχolidjuin), but usually runs from point to point,
compelling the natives to pass across the land in order to reach the
floe of the neighboring bay. Most of the time the edge of the floe
covering Frobisher Bay extends to a line from Countess of Warwick Sound
(Tuarpukdjuaq) to about fifteen miles southeast of Gabriel Island
(Qeqertuqdjuaq), whence it runs south to Kingnait. Sometimes
Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) is the most eastern point inclosed by the ice.
A dangerous current sets through the strait between Resolution Island
(Tudjaqdjuaq) and the mainland, forming whirlpools which menace every
ship that attempts the passage.
Hudson Strait never freezes over. The greater part of the year it is
filled with an immense pack which never consolidates into a continuous
floe. As there are no large bays along the northern shore of that
strait, no land floes of great importance are formed. Only the Bay of
Qaumauang, North Bay, and Behm Bay (the bay of Quaiirnang and that east
of Akuliaq) are covered with floes which are of importance to the
natives. The bays east of Akuliaq and the large fjords of that region
form a comparatively large body of ice.
Probably no land ice is formed between King Cape (Nuvukdjuaq) and the
northern parts of Fox Basin. According to Parry and the reports of the
natives, Fury and Hecla Strait and the bay which forms its eastern
outlet are covered by land ice which is connected with the floe of the
bays of Fox Basin as far as Piling.
In Hudson Bay there are very few places in which the land ice extends to
a considerable distance from the shore. Neither Frozen Strait nor Rowe’s
Welcome freezes over, each being kept open by the swiftly running tides.
The most extensive floes are formed in Repulse Bay, Wager Bay, and
Chesterfield Inlet.
The drifting ice of the Gulf of Boothia never consolidates and even
Committee Bay is rarely covered by a smooth land floe. Pelly Bay and the
sea on the east coast of Boothia as far as Victoria Harbor (Tikeraqdjuq)
freeze over, since they are sheltered by numerous islands. Still larger
is the sheet of ice which covers the bay formed by the estuary of Back
River, King William Land, and Boothia. The western shore of this
peninsula farther north is skirted by a border of land ice the extent of
which is unknown.
It is a remarkable fact that, although the extreme western and eastern
parts of the country abound with extensive floes, the Hudson Bay region
and the Gulf of Boothia are almost devoid of them.
This brief sketch will enable one to understand the geographical
distribution and the migrations of the Eskimo tribes who inhabit this
country.