All the Indians of this region use birch-bark canoes, of the pattern
shown in the figure (Pl. XXXIX, from a photograph; the collection also
contains six wooden models of these canoes). The style of canoe used by
the Little Whale river Indians of the eastern side of Hudson bay has
very much more sheer at the bow and stern than those used in the valley
of the Koksoak. The canoe of each individual differs from others
according to the personal taste or need of the maker. The requirements
are that the canoe shall be able to transport himself and family,
together with the household property, whenever it is desired to change
camps. Some of the canoes are small, others large, often possessed by
two or more individuals in common.
These canoes are constructed in the following manner: Trees are selected
which when split will afford a number of straight-grained slats free
from knots. These slats are shaved to the required thickness and laid
aside to season. They are 3 or 4 inches wide and less than one-third of
an inch in thickness. The exterior or longitudinal strips are placed so
that their edges will touch each other. The inside strips or ribs are
placed about their own width apart, and of course are placed at right
angles to the longitudinal slats. They are thinner than the side strips
and become almost like shavings at the bow and stern. The two layers of
slats form a kind of shell upon which the skin of bark fits tightly.
The first process with the bark is to free it from the outside scaling
layers; the next is to soak it for several days in fresh water to soften
it; otherwise, when dry it would crack like an eggshell. When it has
macerated a sufficient time it is taken out and laid over a form of clay
or other earth, which has previously been roughly molded to the shape of
the interior of the canoe. The bark is now sewed along the edges of the
strips with roots of the spruce tree. These are long and tough, and
resemble splits of rattan when properly prepared for the purpose by
splitting and shaving with a knife. Various sizes of these roots are
used for the different portions. The threads are also soaked in water
until they become so flexible that they may be tied into a knot without
breaking.
When the bark skin rudely conforms to the shape of the mold of earth,
the rails or round strips of wood along the inner edge of the canoe are
placed in position and the ends of the bark strips laid over it and
sewed. A second rail is now laid upon the first and drawn down to it by
means of the root thongs. A piece of wood is shaped for the bow and one
for the stern and inserted in position, and the end seams of the canoe
are sewed over these pieces.
The interior is then ready for the longitudinal strips, which are placed
at the bottom first and gradually built up on each side until the rails
are reached. The ribs or transverse strips are next placed in position.
Five or more crosspieces, or thwarts, are fastened to the side rails to
give stiffness to the sides and to prevent collapsing, and they may be
set either below or above the rail. The greatest care must be exercised
to give to both sides of the canoe the same shape and to have the keel
evenly balanced. This is rudely regulated by the eye during the process
of construction. After all the strips are put in, the boat is allowed to
season and dry. This causes the bark to shrink, and while drying the
whole is frequently inspected to discover any splits or cracks in the
bark. The Indian often wets the canoe, lest it dry too rapidly and split
under the tension. When the form and make are satisfactory the seams are
smeared with a mixture of spruce gum (or resin bought from the traders),
mixed with seal oil to render it less easily broken. This mixture is
while hot laid upon the dry surface with a small paddle.
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Spoon for applying grease to canoe.]
After the gum has seasoned for a day or so the canoe is put upon the
water and tested for its speed and seaworthiness. All leaks and needed
repairs are immediately attended to, and it is at length ready for use.
Many persons have not the skill needed to construct a canoe, and they
employ those who have had experience and are known to build an excellent
boat.
There are two kinds of canoes in use among those Indians, differing only
in the shape of the stern and prow. The original form was nearly flat
along the rails and had the bow and stern but little turned up. Of later
years intercourse with some of their neighbors has induced them to
modify the nearly straight edge canoe into an intermediate shape between
their own and that of the East Main Indians, whose canoes are very much
turned up, and are acknowledged to be far superior vessels to those of
the Ungava Indians.
As the forests in the vicinity of Fort Chimo do not contain birch trees,
and none are found until the headwaters of the Koksoak are reached,
where they are too small to afford bark of sufficient size and
thickness, the Indians are compelled to procure the bark from the
traders, who import it from the St. Lawrence river and gulf stations to
Fort Chimo. It comes in bundles large enough to cover a single canoe of
moderate size. If a canoe is to be very large two bundles are required.
The value of a black fox skin purchases a bundle of bark.
During the spring months, while the weather is somewhat warm, the men
are engaged in preparing the strips and bark for the canoe which is to
convey them up the river when the ice breaks and the river is open for
navigation.
The paddle has a single blade with a handle scarcely more than half the
length of the paddle. It is used with both hands, the strokes being
given on alternate sides as it glides through the water.
When it is necessary that a portage be made the voyager takes the canoe
upon his shoulders by letting one of the center thwarts rest on the back
of the neck. The hands are thrown backward to hold up the end of the
canoe from the ground. A headband, such as I have already described, of
birch bark or cloth, often fancifully ornamented with beads, fits over
the forehead and is attached to the sides of the canoe by means of
thongs, which prevent the canoe from slipping off the shoulders as the
porter quickly traverses the narrow pathway through the trees and
bushes. The ground is often so uneven and rough that long detours have
to be made by the porter, while the rest of the party may go a shorter
path to the place where the canoe will again be placed in the water.
A part of the necessary equipments for a trip in a canoe are pieces of
bark, root threads, and gum to repair any damage resulting from an
accidental contact with a stone or snag.
Without the birch-bark canoe the Indian would have difficulty in
obtaining his living, as it is even more necessary than the sled,
and nearly as useful as the snowshoe.
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Toboggan, Nenenot, side view.]
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Toboggan, Nenenot, from above.]
The paddles used with these canoes are about 5 feet long, having a blade
about 30 inches long and 4½ wide. The handle terminates in a sort of
knob. The paddle referred to, for applying the gum and grease to the
seams of the canoe, has the shape of a flattened spoon with rounded bowl
(Fig. 125). The gum is heated, and while hot is poured along the seams
and pressed into the interstices of the stitches with the paddle. When a
patch is to be applied over a fracture or broken place in the bark, it
may be made to adhere by the sticky properties of the gum alone, if the
distance to be traveled is not great. A fire is then made and the wax
heated; the piece of bark is edged with the gum and pressed firmly over
the rent. A second coat is applied over the edges of the bark, after the
first has become cold. A few minutes suffice to repair an apparently
alarming hole.