Soil Organisms and Soil Fertility.
In the first chapter the plants were referred to as the primary
producers of life, and the animals as the consumers; the former not
only furnish nourishment for their own growth, but also for the support
of the animal world as a whole. Living plants (in reference to green
plants) utilise the sun’s energy in the manufacture of their complex
food materials from comparatively simple chemical compounds. These
latter compounds are carbon dioxide, derived from the air through the
agency of leaves, and a weak solution of various chemical compounds
in water, derived by means of the roots from the soil, and carried up
through the plant to the leaves, where the elaboration into the complex
compounds to be utilised by the plants as food takes place.
These comparatively simple compounds from which the plants elaborate
their nourishment are the raw food materials, and that they must always
be available for plant growth, is evident when one considers the vast
areas of vegetation that cover, with the exception of desert regions,
the surface of the earth. Under moist climatic conditions it has been
calculated that some 500 tons of carbon dioxide and 1,000,000 tons of
water, having the raw food materials in solution, are used annually
by one square mile of dense forest. For their development, therefore,
plants require:--
(1) Sunlight as the source of energy for the carrying on of their
life functions;
(2) Air for the supply of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and, indirectly,
nitrogen;
(3) An ample supply of water required for the living tissues and as
a vehicle for the transport from the soil of
(4) The raw food materials, in the form of various chemical
compounds.
With the exception of the carbon dioxide derived from the air, all the
raw food materials--water, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, iron, etc.--are present in the soil, though only
a part of them is in a form suitable for imbibition by plants. In the
formation of these food materials, which render the soil fertile,
physical forces and the activities of living organisms play a leading
part. Our immediate concern is with the influence of these organisms
upon soil fertility, but it is advisable to give some consideration to
the soil itself, since it is the environment in which the organisms
live, and with which their existence is intimately associated; in
this respect attention will be confined to the type of soil usually
cultivated by the horticulturist, and to the uppermost layers--that is,
approximately, within one foot of the surface.
Soil is the product of disintegrated and weathered rocks with which
are mixed the residues of organic matter. Apart from the particles of
disintegrated rocks, which form the matrix, soil contains chemical
compounds of two kinds: those of a purely mineral nature derived from
the inorganic components of the original rocks, and those of an organic
origin derived either from the ancient remains of organisms, which, in
the case of sedementary deposits, became incorporated in the rocks at
the time of their origin, or from the remains of present-day plants and
animals decomposed by soil organisms. In addition, there is the humus,
which has a fundamental physical influence, and for the production of
which soil organisms are responsible.
[Illustration:
Figure 2
THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF SOIL PROTOZOA.
Magnified 300-400.]
In the initial stages of soil formation during the disintegration
and decomposition of rocks, the first type of soil to be formed is
suitable for the growth of only certain plants; it is of a purely
mineral nature, containing raw food materials derived mainly from the
rocks and not from organic matter, unless from such organic residues
as were incorporated in the rocks during their formation in ancient
times. Such soil cannot sustain the higher types of green plants, nor
is it populated by soil organisms; it furnishes suitable pabulum,
however, for the nourishment and growth of the more lowly types of
vegetation, which are able to convert to their benefit the limited
supply of food materials available. The complex organic compounds that
such primitive plants elaborate from these food materials of purely
mineral origin, and incorporate in their tissues, are, after death,
returned to the soil, which becomes correspondingly enriched, and a
favourable environment for the establishment of organisms; the latter
reduce these plant residues to humus, and during this process of
decomposition produce food materials of an organic origin suitable for
the nutrition of the sequential plant covering. So the process proceeds
until a soil is formed of sufficient extent and quality for the support
of a more extensive and increasingly complex vegetation; thus, in the
cycle of life and decay, stores of organic compounds are elaborated by
plants and returned to the soil, which they enrich, and where they are
decomposed by organisms, and so maintain the supplies of food materials
suitable for the maintenance of vegetation.
These phenomena of plant establishment and succession, correlated with
soil formation, were clearly demonstrated by the re-establishment of
vegetation after the soil and plant life had been destroyed by the
historic eruption in 1883 of Krakatoa, a volcanic island in the Straits
of Sunda, between Java and Sumatra. The first plants to be established
on the volcanic deposits were species of terrestrial algæ, which
gradually spread and built up soil suitable for the development of soil
organisms and for the growth of seeds brought to the island by birds
and ocean currents. So rapid were the changes brought about by these
influences, that within a period of twenty years after the eruption the
barren ground was reclothed by a dense and varied plant covering.
Organisms that form part of the organic complex of the soil range
from the more conspicuous species, such as slugs and snails, insects,
spiders, wood lice, millepedes, earthworms and eelworms, to such
microscopic forms as protozoa, fungi, algæ and bacteria, the last three
being members of the plant kingdom. These organisms may be grouped as
follows:--
(1) Temporary inhabitants that enter the soil for shelter, or to
feed as scavengers on decaying organic matter, or both--_e.g._,
slugs, snails, wood lice, certain insects and some eelworms.
(2) Permanent inhabitants that are dependent on the soil for their
development and supplies of food, either throughout or during most
of their lives--_e.g._, certain insects and spiders, millepedes,
earthworms, eelworms, protozoa, fungi, algæ and bacteria.
The organisms in the first group play a comparatively minor part in
soil development, and influence its fertility to an almost negligible
extent, the temporary scavengers, perhaps, being of more importance
since they aid in the reduction of vegetable residues. The forms in
the second group, however, are invaluable as soil-making agents and in
the production of plant food materials, the least important among them
being the insects, spiders and millepedes. Many are merely scavengers,
but some insects, such as grass-grubs and the caterpillars of certain
moths, and millepedes, feed upon living plants and so add organic
matter to the soil in their excreta, which also contains quantities of
soil swallowed with the food, this latter mechanical action aiding in
the pulverising and opening up of the soil; certain eelworms, too, that
attack living plants play a somewhat similar part, in that they are
primary causative agents in the decay of healthy tissues. Other forms
of insects, together with spiders and some eelworms, are predaceous
upon their fellows, the remains of the latter being added to the soil
residual complex. Apart from the activities of all these organisms,
however, it is the earthworms, protozoa, fungi, algæ and bacteria that
have the most fundamental influence upon soil fertility.
Earthworms may be correctly called the great soil builders; they
burrow through it, allowing the free passage of air and water; they
swallow large quantities, which they eject on the surface in the form
of “worm-casts,” the soil materials being well mixed in the process;
they pull underground leaves and other parts of plants from the surface
and so increase the supply of organic matter for the action of the
micro-organisms that bring about decomposition. Further, by depositing
their “casts” on the surface, earthworms soon cover the accumulations
of dead vegetable matter, as has been illustrated by Darwin in his
classic work on these animals. Without the aid of earthworms--_e.g._,
in sour soils in which they do not abound--the plant residues
accumulate on the surface, to form a partially decomposed, peaty mass,
which only a limited number of plants can tolerate.
The protozoa, fungi, algæ and bacteria are all microscopic organisms,
and are the agents responsible for the decomposition of the organic
residues in the soil; they do not act as independent units, the
processes of one group being dependent upon and intimately related
with those of the others. During the activities of these organisms
various organic and mineral substances are decomposed or transformed
into materials, such as humus and the inorganic compounds of nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, etc., necessary or helpful for the growth of
plants.
The protozoa (see Chapter I.) are the lowest and simplest forms of
animal life, being mere specks of living matter. Three different groups
of soil protozoa occur (Fig. 2). Some, like the amœba, progress by
streaming movements, extruding temporary extensions of their substance
in the form of finger or thread-like processes; the bodies of such
protozoa may be naked, or enclosed in a shell-like covering secreted by
the organism itself, or protected by an accumulation of particles of
foreign matter. Some have a body of more definite shape and progress
by means of the whip-like action of one or two thread-like processes,
or flagella, arising from one end of the body. Such forms are the most
numerous in the soil. Others, also of definite shape, control their
movements by means of short, hair-like processes, or cilia, either
distributed over the body or restricted to definite regions.
The protozoa are widely distributed, being most abundant in the richer
types of soil, especially during the spring and autumn. A great amount
of research has been undertaken at Rothamsted, England, and elsewhere,
on the part played by protozoa in soil fertility; the evidence thus
secured points to the probability that some of these organisms may be
detrimental in that they devour certain kinds of bacteria responsible
for the production of nitrates and other substances of nutritive value
to plants. The extent of this may be realised from the fact that in a
definite weight of soil (about 1-28th of an ounce) the micro-population
was calculated to include not only about 1,550,000 protozoa, of which
430,000 were amœbæ (Fig. 2), but also some 6,000,000,000 bacteria.
Observations showed that a single bacteria-destroying amœba required
about 400 organisms for its nourishment, so that the amœbæ, to
say nothing of the other protozoa, present in the weight of soil
above-mentioned, would be capable of destroying about 172,000,000 of
the bacterial population. Since the partial sterilisation of soil by
steam results in an increase of fertility, it is thought, on account of
the sterilisation destroying the protozoa, being more susceptible, and
not the bacteria, that protozoa inhibit the activities of the bacteria
to such an extent as to reduce the fertility of the soil; but this is
a subject as yet open to argument. Apart from the bacteria-destroying
protozoa, there are other forms that are thought to have something to
do with the decomposition of organic substances.
The fungi, algæ and bacteria are amongst the lowest forms of plant
life, and hold somewhat the same position in the plant kingdom as
the protozoa do among animals; they are, especially the fungi and
bacteria, of primary importance in the maintenance of soil fertility.
The role of algæ lies mainly in increasing the organic content of the
soil, and they are invaluable in developing favourable conditions for
the establishment of vegetation on purely mineral soils. The fungi
and bacteria are responsible for setting up the intricate reactions
involved in the decomposition of organic matter, the bacteria being
concerned in practically all of the chemical processes going on in the
soil. Both fungi and bacteria are of two kinds: those that bring about
decomposition, and those that live in a reciprocal relationship with
plants upon the roots of the latter. Such relationship, which benefits
both organisms and plants, is called symbiosis, the fungi being known
as mycorrhiza, while the bacteria form nodules on the roots of such
plants as the legumes.