HOW THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE "DIVINE RIGHT" OF KINGS AND THE LESS DIVINE
BUT MORE REASONABLE "RIGHT OF PARLIAMENT" ENDED DISASTROUSLY FOR KING
CHARLES II
CAESAR, the earliest explorer of north-western Europe, had crossed
the Channel in the year 55 B.C. and had conquered England. During four
centuries the country then remained a Roman province. But when the
Barbarians began to threaten Rome, the garrisons were called back from
the frontier that they might defend the home country and Britannia was
left without a government and without protection.
As soon as this became known among the hungry Saxon tribes of northern
Germany, they sailed across the North Sea and made themselves at home in
the prosperous island. They founded a number of independent Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms (so called after the original Angles or English and the Saxon
invaders) but these small states were for ever quarrelling with each
other and no King was strong enough to establish himself as the head
of a united country. For more than five hundred years, Mercia and
Northumbria and Wessex and Sussex and Kent and East Anglia, or whatever
their names, were exposed to attacks from various Scandinavian pirates.
Finally in the eleventh century, England, together with Norway and
northern Germany became part of the large Danish Empire of Canute the
Great and the last vestiges of independence disappeared.
The Danes, in the course of time, were driven away but no sooner was
England free, than it was conquered for the fourth time. The new enemies
were the descendants of another tribe of Norsemen who early in the
tenth century had invaded France and had founded the Duchy of Normandy.
William, Duke of Normandy, who for a long time had looked across the
water with an envious eye, crossed the Channel in October of the year
1066. At the battle of Hastings, on October the fourteenth of that
year, he destroyed the weak forces of Harold of Wessex, the last of
the Anglo-Saxon Kings and established himself as King of England. But
neither William nor his successors of the House of Anjou and Plantagenet
regarded England as their true home. To them the island was merely
a part of their great inheritance on the continent--a sort of colony
inhabited by rather backward people upon whom they forced their own
language and civilisation. Gradually however the "colony" of England
gained upon the "Mother country" of Normandy. At the same time the
Kings of France were trying desperately to get rid of the powerful
Norman-English neighbours who were in truth no more than disobedient
servants of the French crown. After a century of war fare the French
people, under the leadership of a young girl by the name of Joan of Arc,
drove the "foreigners" from their soil. Joan herself, taken a prisoner
at the battle of Compiegne in the year 1430 and sold by her Burgundian
captors to the English soldiers, was burned as a witch. But the English
never gained foothold upon the continent and their Kings were at last
able to devote all their time to their British possessions. As the
feudal nobility of the island had been engaged in one of those strange
feuds which were as common in the middle ages as measles and small-pox,
and as the greater part of the old landed proprietors had been killed
during these so-called Wars of the Roses, it was quite easy for the
Kings to increase their royal power. And by the end of the fifteenth
century, England was a strongly centralised country, ruled by Henry VII
of the House of Tudor, whose famous Court of Justice, the "Star Chamber"
of terrible memory, suppressed all attempts on the part of the surviving
nobles to regain their old influence upon the government of the country
with the utmost severity.
In the year 1509 Henry VII was succeeded by his son Henry VIII, and from
that moment on the history of England gained a new importance for the
country ceased to be a mediaeval island and became a modern state.
Henry had no deep interest in religion. He gladly used a private
disagreement with the Pope about one of his many divorces to declare
himself independent of Rome and make the church of England the first of
those "nationalistic churches" in which the worldly ruler also acts as
the spiritual head of his subjects. This peaceful reformation of 1034
not only gave the house of Tudor the support of the English clergy, who
for a long time had been exposed to the violent attacks of many Lutheran
propagandists, but it also increased the Royal power through the
confiscation of the former possessions of the monasteries. At the same
time it made Henry popular with the merchants and tradespeople, who as
the proud and prosperous inhabitants of an island which was separated
from the rest of Europe by a wide and deep channel, had a great dislike
for everything "foreign" and did not want an Italian bishop to rule
their honest British souls.
In 1517 Henry died. He left the throne to his small son, aged ten. The
guardians of the child, favoring the modern Lutheran doctrines, did
their best to help the cause of Protestantism. But the boy died before
he was sixteen, and was succeeded by his sister Mary, the wife of Philip
II of Spain, who burned the bishops of the new "national church" and in
other ways followed the example of her royal Spanish husband
Fortunately she died, in the year 1558, and was succeeded by Elizabeth,
the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, the second of his six wives,
whom he had decapitated when she no longer pleased him. Elizabeth, who
had spent some time in prison, and who had been released only at
the request of the Holy Roman Emperor, was a most cordial enemy of
everything Catholic and Spanish. She shared her father's indifference
in the matter of religion but she inherited his ability as a very shrewd
judge of character, and spent the forty-five years of her reign in
strengthening the power of the dynasty and in increasing the revenue and
possessions of her merry islands. In this she was most ably assisted by
a number of men who gathered around her throne and made the Elizabethan
age a period of such importance that you ought to study it in detail in
one of the special books of which I shall tell you in the bibliography
at the end of this volume.
Elizabeth, however, did not feel entirely safe upon her throne. She had
a rival and a very dangerous one. Mary, of the house of Stuart, daughter
of a French duchess and a Scottish father, widow of king Francis II of
France and daughter-in-law of Catherine of Medici (who had organised the
murders of Saint Bartholomew's night), was the mother of a little boy
who was afterwards to become the first Stuart king of England. She was
an ardent Catholic and a willing friend to those who were the enemies
of Elizabeth. Her own lack of political ability and the violent
methods which she employed to punish her Calvinistic subjects, caused
a revolution in Scotland and forced Mary to take refuge on English
territory. For eighteen years she remained in England, plotting forever
and a day against the woman who had given her shelter and who was at
last obliged to follow the advice of her trusted councilors "to cutte
off the Scottish Queen's heade."
The head was duly "cutte off" in the year 1587 and caused a war with
Spain. But the combined navies of England and Holland defeated Philip's
Invincible Armada, as we have already seen, and the blow which had been
meant to destroy the power of the two great anti-Catholic leaders was
turned into a profitable business adventure.
For now at last, after many years of hesitation, the English as well as
the Dutch thought it their good right to invade the Indies and America
and avenge the ills which their Protestant brethren had suffered at
the hands of the Spaniards. The English had been among the earliest
successors of Columbus. British ships, commanded by the Venetian pilot
Giovanni Caboto (or Cabot), had been the first to discover and explore
the northern American continent in 1496. Labrador and Newfoundland were
of little importance as a possible colony. But the banks of Newfoundland
offered a rich reward to the English fishing fleet. A year later, in
1497, the same Cabot had explored the coast of Florida.
Then had come the busy years of Henry VII and Henry VIII when there had
been no money for foreign explorations. But under Elizabeth, with the
country at peace and Mary Stuart in prison, the sailors could leave
their harbour without fear for the fate of those whom they left behind.
While Elizabeth was still a child, Willoughby had ventured to sail past
the North Cape and one of his captains, Richard Chancellor, pushing
further eastward in his quest of a possible road to the Indies, had
reached Archangel, Russia, where he had established diplomatic and
commercial relations with the mysterious rulers of this distant
Muscovite Empire. During the first years of Elizabeth's rule this voyage
had been followed up by many others. Merchant adventurers, working
for the benefit of a "joint stock Company" had laid the foundations of
trading companies which in later centuries were to become colonies. Half
pirate, half diplomat, willing to stake everything on a single lucky
voyage, smugglers of everything that could be loaded into the hold of
a vessel, dealers in men and merchandise with equal indifference to
everything except their profit, the sailors of Elizabeth had carried the
English flag and the fame of their Virgin Queen to the four corners of
the Seven Seas. Meanwhile William Shakespeare kept her Majesty amused at
home, and the best brains and the best wit of England co-operated with
the queen in her attempt to change the feudal inheritance of Henry VIII
into a modern national state.
In the year 1603 the old lady died at the age of seventy. Her cousin,
the great-grandson of her own grandfather Henry VII and son of Mary
Stuart, her rival and enemy, succeeded her as James I. By the Grace of
God, he found himself the ruler of a country which had escaped the fate
of its continental rivals. While the European Protestants and Catholics
were killing each other in a hopeless attempt to break the power
of their adversaries and establish the exclusive rule of their own
particular creed, England was at peace and "reformed" at leisure without
going to the extremes of either Luther or Loyola. It gave the island
kingdom an enormous advantage in the coming struggle for colonial
possessions. It assured England a leadership in international affairs
which that country has maintained until the present day. Not even the
disastrous adventure with the Stuarts was able to stop this normal
development.
The Stuarts, who succeeded the Tudors, were "foreigners" in England.
They do not seem to have appreciated or understood this fact. The native
house of Tudor could steal a horse, but the "foreign" Stuarts were not
allowed to look at the bridle without causing great popular disapproval.
Old Queen Bess had ruled her domains very much as she pleased. In
general however, she had always followed a policy which meant money in
the pocket of the honest (and otherwise) British merchants. Hence
the Queen had been always assured of the wholehearted support of her
grateful people. And small liberties taken with some of the rights
and prerogatives of Parliament were gladly overlooked for the ulterior
benefits which were derived from her Majesty's strong and successful
foreign policies.
Outwardly King James continued the same policy. But he lacked that
personal enthusiasm which had been so very typical of his great
predecessor. Foreign commerce continued to be encouraged. The Catholics
were not granted any liberties. But when Spain smiled pleasantly upon
England in an effort to establish peaceful relations, James was seen to
smile back. The majority of the English people did not like this, but
James was their King and they kept quiet.
Soon there were other causes of friction. King James and his son,
Charles I, who succeeded him in the year 1625 both firmly believed in
the principle of their "divine right" to administer their realm as they
thought fit without consulting the wishes of their subjects. The idea
was not new. The Popes, who in more than one way had been the successors
of the Roman Emperors (or rather of the Roman Imperial ideal of a
single and undivided state covering the entire known world), had
always regarded themselves and had been publicly recognised as the
"Vice-Regents of Christ upon Earth." No one questioned the right of God
to rule the world as He saw fit. As a natural result, few ventured to
doubt the right of the divine "Vice-Regent" to do the same thing and
to demand the obedience of the masses because he was the direct
representative of the Absolute Ruler of the Universe and responsible
only to Almighty God.
When the Lutheran Reformation proved successful, those rights which
formerly had been invested in the Papacy were taken over by the many
European sovereigns who became Protestants. As head of their own
national or dynastic churches they insisted upon being "Christ's
Vice-Regents" within the limit of their own territory. The people
did not question the right of their rulers to take such a step.
They accepted it, just as we in our own day accept the idea of a
representative system which to us seems the only reasonable and
just form of government. It is unfair therefore to state that either
Lutheranism or Calvinism caused the particular feeling of irritation
which greeted King-James's oft and loudly repeated assertion of his
"Divine Right." There must have been other grounds for the genuine
English disbelief in the Divine Right of Kings.
The first positive denial of the "Divine Right" of sovereigns had been
heard in the Netherlands when the Estates General abjured their lawful
sovereign King Philip II of Spain, in the year 1581. "The King," so they
said, "has broken his contract and the King therefore is dismissed like
any other unfaithful servant." Since then, this particular idea of a
king's responsibilities towards his subjects had spread among many of
the nations who inhabited the shores of the North Sea. They were in a
very favourable position. They were rich. The poor people in the heart
of central Europe, at the mercy of their Ruler's body-guard, could not
afford to discuss a problem which would at once land them in the deepest
dungeon of the nearest castle. But the merchants of Holland and England
who possessed the capital necessary for the maintenance of great armies
and navies, who knew how to handle the almighty weapon called "credit,"
had no such fear. They were willing to pit the "Divine Right" of their
own good money against the "Divine Right" of any Habsburg or Bourbon
or Stuart. They knew that their guilders and shillings could beat the
clumsy feudal armies which were the only weapons of the King. They dared
to act, where others were condemned to suffer in silence or run the risk
of the scaffold.
When the Stuarts began to annoy the people of England with their
claim that they had a right to do what they pleased and never mind the
responsibility, the English middle classes used the House of Commons as
their first line of defence against this abuse of the Royal Power. The
Crown refused to give in and the King sent Parliament about its own
business. Eleven long years, Charles I ruled alone. He levied taxes
which most people regarded as illegal and he managed his British kingdom
as if it had been his own country estate. He had capable assistants and
we must say that he had the courage of his convictions.
Unfortunately, instead of assuring himself of the support of his
faithful Scottish subjects, Charles became involved in a quarrel with
the Scotch Presbyterians. Much against his will, but forced by his need
for ready cash, Charles was at last obliged to call Parliament together
once more. It met in April of 1640 and showed an ugly temper. It was
dissolved a few weeks later. A new Parliament convened in November. This
one was even less pliable than the first one. The members understood
that the question of "Government by Divine Right" or "Government by
Parliament" must be fought out for good and all. They attacked the
King in his chief councillors and executed half a dozen of them. They
announced that they would not allow themselves to be dissolved without
their own approval. Finally on December 1, 1641, they presented to the
King a "Grand Remonstrance" which gave a detailed account of the many
grievances of the people against their Ruler.
Charles, hoping to derive some support for his own policy in the country
districts, left London in January of 1642. Each side organised an army
and prepared for open warfare between the absolute power of the crown
and the absolute power of Parliament. During this struggle, the most
powerful religious element of England, called the Puritans, (they were
Anglicans who had tried to purify their doctrines to the most absolute
limits), came quickly to the front. The regiments of "Godly men,"
commanded by Oliver Cromwell, with their iron discipline and their
profound confidence in the holiness of their aims, soon became the model
for the entire army of the opposition. Twice Charles was defeated. After
the battle of Naseby, in 1645, he fled to Scotland. The Scotch sold him
to the English.
There followed a period of intrigue and an uprising of the Scotch
Presbyterians against the English Puritan. In August of the year 1648
after the three-days' battle of Preston Pans, Cromwell made an end to
this second civil war, and took Edinburgh. Meanwhile his soldiers, tired
of further talk and wasted hours of religious debate, had decided to act
on their own initiative. They removed from Parliament all those who did
not agree with their own Puritan views. Thereupon the "Rump," which was
what was left of the old Parliament, accused the King of high treason.
The House of Lords refused to sit as a tribunal. A special tribunal was
appointed and it condemned the King to death. On the 30th of January of
the year 1649, King Charles walked quietly out of a window of White Hall
onto the scaffold. That day, the Sovereign People, acting through their
chosen representatives, for the first time executed a ruler who had
failed to understand his own position in the modern state.
The period which followed the death of Charles is usually called after
Oliver Cromwell. At first the unofficial Dictator of England, he was
officially made Lord Protector in the year 1653. He ruled five years. He
used this period to continue the policies of Elizabeth. Spain once more
became the arch enemy of England and war upon the Spaniard was made a
national and sacred issue.
The commerce of England and the interests of the traders were placed
before everything else, and the Protestant creed of the strictest nature
was rigourously maintained. In maintaining England's position abroad,
Cromwell was successful. As a social reformer, however, he failed very
badly. The world is made up of a number of people and they rarely think
alike. In the long run, this seems a very wise provision. A government
of and by and for one single part of the entire community cannot
possibly survive. The Puritans had been a great force for good when they
tried to correct the abuse of the royal power. As the absolute Rulers of
England they became intolerable.
When Cromwell died in 1658, it was an easy matter for the Stuarts to
return to their old kingdom. Indeed, they were welcomed as "deliverers"
by the people who had found the yoke of the meek Puritans quite as hard
to bear as that of autocratic King Charles. Provided the Stuarts were
willing to forget about the Divine Right of their late and lamented
father and were willing to recognise the superiority of Parliament, the
people promised that they would be loyal and faithful subjects.
Two generations tried to make a success of this new arrangement. But the
Stuarts apparently had not learned their lesson and were unable to drop
their bad habits. Charles II, who came back in the year 1660, was an
amiable but worthless person. His indolence and his constitutional
insistence upon following the easiest course, together with his
conspicuous success as a liar, prevented an open outbreak between
himself and his people. By the act of Uniformity in 1662 he broke the
power of the Puritan clergy by banishing all dissenting clergymen from
their parishes. By the so-called Conventicle Act of 1664 he tried to
prevent the Dissenters from attending religious meetings by a threat of
deportation to the West Indies. This looked too much like the good old
days of Divine Right. People began to show the old and well-known
signs of impatience, and Parliament suddenly experienced difficulty in
providing the King with funds.
Since he could not get money from an unwilling Parliament, Charles
borrowed it secretly from his neighbour and cousin King Louis of France.
He betrayed his Protestant allies in return for 200,000 pounds per year,
and laughed at the poor simpletons of Parliament.
Economic independence suddenly gave the King great faith in his own
strength. He had spent many years of exile among his Catholic relations
and he had a secret liking for their religion. Perhaps he could bring
England back to Rome! He passed a Declaration of Indulgence which
suspended the old laws against the Catholics and Dissenters. This
happened just when Charles' younger brother James was said to have
become a Catholic. All this looked suspicious to the man in the street
People began to fear some terrible Popish plot. A new spirit of unrest
entered the land. Most of the people wanted to prevent another outbreak
of civil war. To them Royal Oppression and a Catholic King--yea, even
Divine Right,--were preferable to a new struggle between members of the
same race. Others however were less lenient. They were the much-feared
Dissenters, who invariably had the courage of their convictions. They
were led by several great noblemen who did not want to see a return of
the old days of absolute royal power.
For almost ten years, these two great parties, the Whigs (the middle
class element, called by this derisive name be-cause in the year 1640 a
lot of Scottish Whiggamores or horse-drovers headed by the Presbyterian
clergy, had marched to Edinburgh to oppose the King) and the Tories (an
epithet originally used against the Royalist Irish adherents but now
applied to the supporters of the King) opposed each other, but neither
wished to bring about a crisis. They allowed Charles to die peacefully
in his bed and permitted the Catholic James II to succeed his brother
in 1685. But when James, after threatening the country with the terrible
foreign invention of a "standing army" (which was to be commanded by
Catholic Frenchmen), issued a second Declaration of Indulgence in 1688,
and ordered it to be read in all Anglican churches, he went just a
trifle beyond that line of sensible demarcation which can only be
transgressed by the most popular of rulers under very exceptional
circumstances. Seven bishops refused to comply with the Royal Command.
They were accused of "seditious libel." They were brought before a
court. The jury which pronounced the verdict of "not guilty" reaped a
rich harvest of popular approval.
At this unfortunate moment, James (who in a second marriage had taken to
wife Maria of the Catholic house of Modena-Este) became the father of a
son. This meant that the throne was to go to a Catholic boy rather than
to his older sisters, Mary and Anne, who were Protestants. The man in
the street again grew suspicious. Maria of Modena was too old to have
children! It was all part of a plot! A strange baby had been brought
into the palace by some Jesuit priest that England might have a Catholic
monarch. And so on. It looked as if another civil war would break out.
Then seven well-known men, both Whigs and Tories, wrote a letter asking
the husband of James's oldest daughter Mary, William III the Stadtholder
or head of the Dutch Republic, to come to England and deliver the
country from its lawful but entirely undesirable sovereign.
On the fifth of November of the year 1688, William landed at Torbay. As
he did not wish to make a martyr out of his father-in-law, he helped him
to escape safely to France. On the 22nd of January of 1689 he summoned
Parliament. On the 13th of February of the same year he and his wife
Mary were proclaimed joint sovereigns of England and the country was
saved for the Protestant cause.
Parliament, having undertaken to be something more than a mere advisory
body to the King, made the best of its opportunities. The old Petition
of Rights of the year 1628 was fished out of a forgotten nook of the
archives. A second and more drastic Bill of Rights demanded that the
sovereign of England should belong to the Anglican church. Furthermore
it stated that the king had no right to suspend the laws or permit
certain privileged citizens to disobey certain laws. It stipulated that
"without consent of Parliament no taxes could be levied and no army
could be maintained." Thus in the year 1689 did England acquire an
amount of liberty unknown in any other country of Europe.
But it is not only on account of this great liberal measure that the
rule of William in England is still remembered. During his lifetime,
government by a "responsible" ministry first developed. No king of
course can rule alone. He needs a few trusted advisors. The Tudors had
their Great Council which was composed of Nobles and Clergy. This body
grew too large. It was restricted to the small "Privy Council." In the
course of time it became the custom of these councillors to meet the
king in a cabinet in the palace. Hence they were called the "Cabinet
Council." After a short while they were known as the "Cabinet."
William, like most English sovereigns before him, had chosen his
advisors from among all parties. But with the increased strength of
Parliament, he had found it impossible to direct the politics of the
country with the help of the Tories while the Whigs had a majority in
the house of Commons. Therefore the Tories had been dismissed and the
Cabinet Council had been composed entirely of Whigs. A few years later
when the Whigs lost their power in the House of Commons, the king, for
the sake of convenience, was obliged to look for his support among the
leading Tories. Until his death in 1702, William was too busy fighting
Louis of France to bother much about the government of England.
Practically all important affairs had been left to his Cabinet Council.
When William's sister-in-law, Anne, succeeded him in 1702 this condition
of affairs continued. When she died in 1714 (and unfortunately not a
single one of her seventeen children survived her) the throne went to
George I of the House of Hanover, the son of Sophie, grand-daughter of
James I.
This somewhat rustic monarch, who never learned a word of English,
was entirely lost in the complicated mazes of England's political
arrangements. He left everything to his Cabinet Council and kept away
from their meetings, which bored him as he did not understand a single
sentence. In this way the Cabinet got into the habit of ruling England
and Scotland (whose Parliament had been joined to that of England in
1707) without bothering the King, who was apt to spend a great deal of
his time on the continent.
During the reign of George I and George II, a succession of great Whigs
(of whom one, Sir Robert Walpole, held office for twenty-one years)
formed the Cabinet Council of the King. Their leader was finally
recognised as the official leader not only of the actual Cabinet but
also of the majority party in power in Parliament. The attempts of
George III to take matters into his own hands and not to leave the
actual business of government to his Cabinet were so disastrous that
they were never repeated. And from the earliest years of the eighteenth
century on, England enjoyed representative government, with a
responsible ministry which conducted the affairs of the land.
To be quite true, this government did not represent all classes of
society. Less than one man in a dozen had the right to vote. But it was
the foundation for the modern representative form of government. In
a quiet and orderly fashion it took the power away from the King
and placed it in the hands of an ever increasing number of popular
representatives. It did not bring the millenium to England, but it saved
that country from most of the revolutionary outbreaks which proved so
disastrous to the European continent in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries.