FOOTNOTE:

[1] The "Irish Guards" of the Stuarts took the side of James II.,

fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental

identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers

transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.

GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour to act as a

guard, and in former times in the British navy to receive the men

impressed for service. She usually was the flagship of the admiral

commanding on the coast. A guard-boat is a boat which goes the round of

a fleet at anchor to see that due watch is kept at night.

GUARICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the territorial

redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda on the N., Bermudez on

the E., Bolivar on the S., and Zamora on the W. Pop. (1905 estimate),

78,117. It extends across the northern _llanos_ to the Orinoco and Apure

rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting

cattle, horses and mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other

products. The capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are

Camaguan (pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), on a

small tributary of the Guarico river, and Zaraza (pop. 14,546) on the

Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Caracas.

GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named GUERRIERO, the first Paduan

painter who distinguished himself. The only date distinctly known in his

career is 1365, when, having already acquired high renown in his native

city, he was invited by the Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise,

and some incidents of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of

Venice. These works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago

disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have suffered much. In

the church of the Eremitani are allegories of the Planets, and, in its

choir, some small sacred histories in dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo;

also, on the upper walls, the life of St Augustine, with some other

subjects. A few fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still

extant in Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully

executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method of

handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be classed in that

school of art which preceded Cimabue than as having advanced in his

vestiges; likewise two other works in Bassano, ascribed to the same

hand. The painter is buried in the church of S. Bernardino, Padua.

GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk, writer and

architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at once a learned

mathematician, professor of literature and philosophy at Messina, and,

from the age of seventeen, was architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He

designed a very large number of public and private buildings at Turin,

including the palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan,

and many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, Lisbon and

Paris. He died at Milan in 1683.

GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet, author of the

_Pastor fido_, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of December 1537, just

seven years before the birth of Tasso. He was descended from Guarino da

Verona. The young Battista studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was

called, when not yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools

of his native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early

in life to marry Taddea de' Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In 1567 he

entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, thus beginning the

court career which was destined to prove a constant source of

disappointment and annoyance to him. Though he cultivated poetry for

pastime, Guarini aimed at state employment as the serious business of

his life, and managed to be sent on various embassies and missions by

his ducal master. There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no

opportunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish

himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too had

passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such glowing terms

by Castiglione, could confer either profit or honour. It is true that

the court of Alphonso presented a brilliant spectacle to Europe, with

Tasso for titular poet, and an attractive circle of accomplished

ladies. But the last duke of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding

his servants with promises, and ever ready to treat them with the

brutality that condemned the author of the _Gerusalemme liberata_ to a

madhouse. Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose, suffered

from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries,--Pigna and

Montecatini,--quarrelled with his old friend Tasso, and at the end of

fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined, with a large family

and no prospects. When Tasso was condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted

Guarini to the vacant post of court poet. There is an interesting letter

extant from the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing

the efforts he made to fill this place appropriately. "I strove to

transform myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the

character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in manhood, I

forced myself to look young; I turned my natural melancholy into

artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, exchanged wisdom for

folly, and, in a word, passed from a philosopher into a poet." How

ill-adapted he felt himself to this masquerade life may be gathered from

the following sentence: "I am already in my forty-fourth year, the

father of eight children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors,

while my daughters are of an age to marry." Abandoning so uncongenial a

strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to his ancestral

farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies between the

Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares of his family, the

nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the composition of the _Pastor

fido_. He was not happy in his domestic lot; for he had lost his wife

young, and quarrelled with his elder sons about the division of his

estate. Litigation seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini;

nor was he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography,

the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally a man of

robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness, confident in his

own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs, whose energies found

no proper scope for their exercise. Literary work offered but a poor

sphere for such a character, while the enforced inactivity of court life

soured a naturally capricious and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke

with a certain tone of condescension, professing to practise it only in

his leisure moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to

secure for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a

little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement--a disappointed

courtier past the prime of early manhood--should have been a dramatic

masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of Italian literature.

Deferring a further account of the _Pastor fido_ for the present, the

remaining incidents of Guarini's restless life may be briefly told. In

1585 he was at Turin superintending the first public performance of his

drama, whence Alphonso recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office

of secretary of state. This reconciliation between the poet and his

patron did not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and

back again to Florence, where he established himself as the courtier of

Ferdinand de' Medici. A dishonourable marriage, pressed upon his son

Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the natural resentment of Guarini,

always scrupulous upon the point of honour. He abandoned the Medicean

court, and took refuge with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of

the Montefeltro-della-Rovere house. Yet he found no satisfaction at

Urbino. "The old court is a dead institution," he writes to a friend;

"one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of to-day.

Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes a-masquerading all the

year." This was true enough. Those dwindling deadly-lively little

residence towns of Italian ducal families, whose day of glory was over,

and who were waiting to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of

Austria, were no fit places for a man of energy and independence.

Guarini finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the

death of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at the

Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits, and

polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until 1612, when he

died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year.

The _Pastor fido_ (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama composed

not without reminiscences of Tasso's _Aminta_. The scene is laid in

Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been the custom to sacrifice

a maiden yearly to Diana. But an oracle has declared that when two

scions of divine lineage are united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd

has atoned for the ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite

shall cease. The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this

prophecy, contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for

bringing it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent

improbabilities of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and,

regarded as a piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired.

Each motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply developed.

Yet, considered as a play, the _Pastor fido_ disappoints a reader

trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. The action itself

seems to take place off the stage, and only the results of action,

stationary tableaux representing the movement of the drama, are put

before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical, not merely in form but in

spirit, and in adaptation to the requirements of music which demands

stationary expressions of emotion for development. The characters have

been well considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness;

the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender and

romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca's meretricious arts enhancing the pure

affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type of love so

impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of shame, while the

courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns into comparison with the

innocence of the country. In Carino the poet painted his own experience,

and here his satire upon the court of Ferrara is none the less biting

because it is gravely measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman

vitiated by the same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he

drawn. Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the _Pastor

fido_ in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole play

is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society. There is no

true rusticity whatever in the drama. This correspondence with the

spirit of the age secured its success during Guarini's lifetime; this

made it so dangerously seductive that Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet

he had done more harm to Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by

his heresy. Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the

_Pastor fido_ is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty of its

pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more provocative than

nudity. Moreover, the love described is effeminate and wanton, felt less

as passion than as lust enveloped in a veil of sentiment. We divine the

coming age of _cicisbei_ and _castrati_. Of Guarini's style it would be

difficult to speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and

experience of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and

have found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to

perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes itself

felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does Guarini abstain

from sententious maxims which reveal the moralist rather than the poet.

Yet these are but minor blemishes in a masterpiece of diction,

glittering and faultless like a polished bas-relief of hard Corinthian

bronze. That a single pastoral should occupy so prominent a place in the

history of literature seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy,

upon the close of the 16th century, expressed itself in the _Pastor

fido_, and that the influence of this drama was felt through all the art

of Europe till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The

sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found in it the

most exact embodiment, and made it the code of gallantry for the next

two centuries.

The best edition of the _Pastor fido_ is the 20th, published at Venice

(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbera (Florence,

1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous _Rime_, the Ferrara edition, in 4

vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, _Verato primo_

and _secondo_, and his prose comedy called _Idropica_, were published

at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614. (J. A. S.)

GUARINO, also known as VARINUS, and surnamed from his birthplace

FAVORINUS, PHAVORINUS or CAMERS (c. 1450-1537), Italian lexicographer

and scholar, was born at Favera near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin

at Florence under Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil

of Lascaris. Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself

with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published his

_Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis_, a collection of thirty-four

grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time acted as tutor to Giovanni

dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and also held the appointment of keeper

of the Medicean library at Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of

Nocera. In 1517 he published a translation of the _Apophthegmata_ of

Joannes Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his _Etymologicum magnum, sive

thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus

collectus_, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, and which

has laid subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged

obligations.

GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one of the Italian restorers

of classical learning, was born in 1370 at Verona, and studied Greek at

Constantinople, where for five years he was the pupil of Manuel

Chrysoloras. When he set out on his return to Italy he was the happy

possessor of two cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great

pains to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck

caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night. He

supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at Verona and afterwards

in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he became, through the patronage of

Lionel, marquis of Este, professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and

following years he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils

of Ferrara and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December

1460.

His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the

_Lives_ of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras,

and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial and on some

of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, _Vita e

disciplina di Guarino_ (1805-1806); Sabbadini, _Guarino Veronese_

(1885); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908).

GUARNIERI, or GUARNERIUS, a celebrated family of violin-makers of

Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), who worked with Antonio

Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of

a model original to him are dated from the sign of "St Theresa" in

Cremona. His son Joseph (1666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like

his father's, but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his

son, Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son of

Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as "Peter of Cremona"

(b. 1655), moved from Cremona and settled at Mantua, where he too worked

"sub signo Sanctae Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable

variations from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the

violin, says, "There is increased breadth between the sound-holes; the

sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; the middle bouts are more

contracted, and the model is more raised."

The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of Andreas,

Joseph del Gesu (1687-1745), whose title originates in the I.H.S.

inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar di Salo. His conception

follows that of the early Brescian makers in the boldness of outline and

the massive construction which aim at the production of tone rather than

visual perfection of form. The great variety of his work in size, model,

&c., represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering

this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board on both

sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. Since the

middle of the 18th century a great many spurious instruments ascribed to

this master have poured over Europe. It was not until Paganini played on

a "Joseph" that the taste of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the

Amati and the Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the

Joseph Guarnerius. See VIOLIN.

GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of

Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, on the S. bank of the Po, 79

ft. above sea-level. It is also connected by rail with Parma and Mantua

(via Suzzara). Pop. (1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has

16th-century fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th

century, has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the

Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope Paschal II.

held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by Giberto da Correggio of

Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria

Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it was sold by the last female descendant of

the Torelli to Ferrante Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a

duchy, but in 1748 it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose

history it subsequently followed.

GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA), a name now

restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its chief city, but

formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish America, which included

the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate,

San Salvador, Vera Paz and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa

Rica, Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Solola, Chimaltenango and

Sacatepeques,--or, in other words, the whole of Central America (except

Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably of Aztec origin, and is

said by some authorities to mean in its native form Quauhtematlan, "Land

of the Eagle," or "Land of Forest"; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la,

connect it with the volcano of Agua (i.e. "water"), and interpret it as

"mountain vomiting water."

The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13 deg. 42' and 17 deg.

49' N., and 88 deg. 10' and 92 deg. 30' W. (For map, see CENTRAL

AMERICA.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. Guatemala is

bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by British Honduras, E. by the

Gulf of Honduras, and the republic of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S.

by the Pacific Ocean. The frontier towards Mexico was determined by

conventions of the 27th of September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the

1st of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the Pacific,

it ascends the river Suchiate, then follows an irregular line towards

the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of 17 deg. 49[min] N.,

along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This frontier,

by the convention of the 9th of July 1893, coincides with the meridian

of 89 deg. 20[min] W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or Sarstun,

which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.

_Physical Description._--Guatemala is naturally divided into five

regions--the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains of

the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of these,

the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. (1) The

coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, with a mean

breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar territory in

Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. Owing to their

tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and marshy soil, they

are thinly peopled, and contain few important towns except the

seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the Sierra Madre, which

closes in the coastal plains on the north, is similarly prolonged into

Salvador and Mexico. It is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de

las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. It forms the

main watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its

summit is not a well-defined crest, but is often rounded or flattened

into a table-land. The direction of the great volcanic cones, which

rise in an irregular line above it, is not identical with the main

axis of the Sierra itself, except near the Mexican frontier, but has a

more southerly trend, especially towards Salvador; here the base of

many of the igneous peaks rests among the southern foothills of the

range. It is, however, impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a

northern and a volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by

stretches of comparatively low country; at least thirteen considerable

streams flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea.

Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly from

the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they tower; but

in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. East of Tacana,

which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously estimated at 13,976

ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate be correct is the

loftiest peak in Central America, the principal volcanoes

are--Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria (12,467 ft.),

which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of quiescence, in

which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; Atitlan

(11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango (13,615).

which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain of Central

America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at 12,795 ft. and

12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity at the time of

the Spanish conquest; Agua (i.e. "water," 12,139 ft.), so named in

1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala with a

deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya (8390), a group of

igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. (3) The so-called

plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre are in fact high

valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains. A better idea

of this region is conveyed by the native name Altos, or highlands,

although that term includes the northern declivity of the Sierra

Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in the west (Altos of

Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of Guatemala). A few of

the streams of the Pacific slope actually rise in the Altos, and force

a way through the Sierra Madre at the bottom of deep ravines. One

large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards towards the Atlantic. (4)

The relief of the mountainous country which lies north of the Altos

and drains into the Atlantic is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges

and underfalls; but its general configuration is admirably compared by

E. Reclus with the appearance of "a stormy sea breaking into parallel

billows" (_Universal Geography_, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii.,

p. 212). The parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight

southerly curve towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de

Chama, which, however, changes its name frequently from place to

place, strikes eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by

low hills with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the

Sierra de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the

Polochic and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in

its eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic

and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier is formed

by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, which

comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, belongs

geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of level or

undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its population

numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts have a

wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater part of

this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by the

Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.

Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras the

versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are

consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number of the

rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, whose

principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course of about

250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, which is

situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It forms a

delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar importance is

the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and navigable about 20

m. above the river-port of Teleman. Before reaching the Golfo Amatique

it passes through the Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete

Dulce. A vast number of streams, among which are the Chixoy, the

Guadalupe, and the Rio de la Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta,

whose noble current passes along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on

through Chiapas and Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The

Chiapas follows a similar course.

There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of Peten or

Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of Peten, is an

irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 13 m. In

an island in the western portion stands Flores, a town well known to

American antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been

recovered from its soil. On the shore of the lake is the stalactite

cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; and in its depths,

according to the popular legend, may still be discerned the stone

image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The Golfo Dulce is, as its

name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so near the Atlantic. It is

about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable value as a harbour if

the bar at the mouth of the Rio Dulce did not prevent the upward

passage of seafaring vessels. As a contrast the Lake of Atitlan (q.v.)

is a land-locked basin encompassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S.

of the capital lies the Lake of Amatitlan (q.v.) with the town of the

same name. On the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake

of Guija, about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above

the sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza

which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.

The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under CENTRAL

AMERICA. The bird-life of the country is remarkably rich; one bird of

magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon

resplendens_), has been chosen as the national emblem.

_Climate._--The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where

malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts

from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till

December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is May. The

average temperatures for these months at places of different

altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following

page.

The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,

where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf of

Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the Atlantic

slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 27 in.

Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, and there is

a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that "it rains thirteen months in

the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, as in other parts of

Central America (q.v.), each of the three climatic zones, cold,

temperate and hot (_tierra fria_, _tierra templada_, _tierra

caliente_) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to

generalize about the climate of the country as a whole.

+----------------+----------+--------------------+

| | Altitude | Fahrenheit Degrees.|

| Locality. | (Feet). +--------------------+

| | | January. | May. |

+----------------+----------+-----------+--------+

| Puerto Barrios | 6 | 74 | 81 |

| Salama | 3020 | 68 | 77 |

| Campur | 3050 | 64 | 73 |

| Chimax | 4280 | 61 | 68 |

| Guatemala | 4870 | 60 | 67 |

| Quezaltenango | 7710 | 50 | 62 |

+----------------+----------+-----------+--------+

_Natural Products._--The minerals discovered in Guatemala include

gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and

sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities

sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas

near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula,

salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th century

gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the Motagua valley,

and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the name of "Gold

Coast" was not infrequently given to the Atlantic littoral near the

mouth of the Motagua.

The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west, and

amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it yields many

valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, mahogany and

logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great

abundance, especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, as

in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the Peten district are equally

fertile, maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured

soil. The vegetable products of Guatemala include coffee, cocoa,

sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha,

castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant

(_Myrica cerifera_).

_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to increase

rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, and low rate of

emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or more than one-third of the

entire population of Central America. Fully 60% are pure Indians, and

the remainder, classed as _Ladinos_ or "Latins" (i.e. Spaniards in

speech and mode of life), comprise a large majority of half-castes

(_mestizos_) and civilized Indians and a smaller proportion of whites.

It includes a foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North

Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the United

States. There are important German agricultural settlements, and many

colonists from north Italy who are locally called _Tiroleses_, and

despised by the Indians for their industry and thrift. About half the

births among the Indians and one-third among the whites are

illegitimate.

No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of tribes, and

in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen,

although east of the meridian of Lake Amatitlan the native speech has

almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians

belong chiefly to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten,

or to the allied Quiche race which is well represented in the Altos and

central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, Pokonchi and the

Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of Mixco near the capital, all

belong to the Maya family; but parts of central and eastern Guatemala

are peopled by tribes distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico.

In the 16th century the Mayas and Quiches had attained a high level of

civilization (see CENTRAL AMERICA, _Archaeology_), and at least two of

the Guatemalan languages, Quiche and Cakchiquel, possess the rudiments

or the relics of a literature. The Quiche _Popol Vuh_, or "Book of

History," which was translated into Spanish by the Dominican friar

Ximenes, and edited with a French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is

an important document for students of the local myths. In appearance the

various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the

characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low forehead,

prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In character the Indians

are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious of their numerical

superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions which so

often disturb the course of local politics; they are often intensely

religious, but with a few exceptions are thriftless, indolent and

inveterate gamblers. Their _confradias_, or brotherhoods, each with its

patron saint and male and female chiefs, exist largely to organize

public festivals, and to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations

for the dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas,

which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian origin,

and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval Europe, a

resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to Spanish missionaries,

of Christian saints and heroes such as Charlemagne. The Indians are

devoted to bull-fighting and cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular

amusement, and is accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native

wind-instruments. The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish

edible earth containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images

moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a

prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied

occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple diet;

drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when large quantities

of a fiery brandy called _chicha_ are consumed.

_Chief Towns._--The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala la

Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango

(31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Solola (17,000),

Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlan (10,000) and

Atitlan (9000) are described under separate headings. All the chief

towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region

where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, among the southern

foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the centres of coffee

production, and is connected by rail with the Pacific port of

Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet season. Both Retalhuleu

and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, Solola, and other towns,

temporarily ruined by the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902. Santa

Cruz Quiche, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam, was formerly the capital of

the Quiche kings, but has now a Ladino population. Livingston, a

seaport at the mouth of the Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was

founded in 1806, and subsequently named after the author of a code of

Guatemalan laws; few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of

Sevilla la Nueva, founded in 1844, and of the English colony of

Abbotsville, founded in 1825,--both near Livingston. La Libertad, also

called by its Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.

_Shipping and Communications._--The republic is in regular steam

communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York and

Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo Tomas) and

Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San Jose, Champerico and

Ocos are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, by the vessels of a

Hamburg company and by those of the South American (Chilean) and the

Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. Iztapa, formerly the principal

harbour on the south coast, has been almost entirely abandoned since

1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small

river-ports. The principal towns are connected by wagon roads, towards

the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is

required to pay two pesos or give four days' work a year. There are

coach routes between the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great

portion of the country transport is still on mule-back. All the

railway lines have been built since 1875. The main lines are the

Southern, belonging to an American company and running from San Jose

to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital to

Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and the

Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a Guatemalan

company, but largely under German management. For local traffic there

are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San Jose, to Naranjo, and

another from Ocos to the western coffee plantations. On the Atlantic

slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from Livingston

along the Golfo Dulce and other lakes, and the Polochic river as far

as Panzos. The narrow-gauge railway that serves the German plantations

in the Vera Paz region is largely owned by Germans.

Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and

telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial

difficulties. The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva,

Quezaltenango and other cities are owned by private companies.

_Commerce and Industry._--The natural resources of Guatemala are rich

but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their development is

not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution and economic

crises recur at frequent intervals, where the premium on gold has

varied by no less than 500% in a single year, and where many of the

wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by

earthquake in one day (18th of April 1902). At the beginning of the

19th century, Guatemala had practically no export trade; but between

1825 and 1850 cochineal was largely exported, the centre of production

being the Amatitlan district. This industry was ruined by the

competition of chemical dyes, and a substitute was found in the

cultivation of coffee. Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the

East Indies in the quantity of coffee it exports. The chief

plantations are owned and managed by Germans; more than half of the

crop is sent to Germany, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the

United States and one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly

product is about 70,000,000 lb., worth approximately L1,300,000, and

subject to an export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101

lb.). Sugar, bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much

of the sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are

consumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of

western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its fine

flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations yield

little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in most cases

been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas tends to

increase, though more slowly than in other Central American countries.

Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption.

Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains

of Peten; but the whole number of sheep (77,000 in 1900) and pigs

(30,000) in the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single

English counties. Much of the wool is sold, like the native cotton, to

Indian and Ladino women, who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in

their homes.

By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts and

frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding

tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or

5625 acres; the price varies from L40 to L80 per caballeria of 112-1/2

acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to

immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake to

build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, villages

and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations is often

akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some planters of

making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend their earnings,

and thus contract debts which can only be repaid by long service.

In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar mills

and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the

plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as the

manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and

manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries

are far less important than agriculture.

During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of

Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and

machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted

to L776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and nearly

one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during the same period

had an average value of L1,528,000, and ranked as follows in order of

value: coffee (L1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, sugar, bananas,

cocoa.

_Finance._--Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to which

the government is deeply indebted. There is practically neither gold

nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes is so

fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the 25th of June

1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted; and

thenceforward all banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the

value of 10% of the notes issued in 1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906.

This reform has not, to any appreciable extent, rendered more stable

the value of the notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100

centavas is the monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a

nominal value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by

the paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.),

half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and measures

has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain in general use.

Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 9% from

property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% from the

gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various taxes, stamps,

government lands, and postal and telegraph services. The estimated

revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos (about L328,500); the

estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos (L390,200), of which

L242,800 were allotted to the public debt, L42,000 to internal

development and justice, L29,000 to the army and the remainder largely

to education. The gold value of the currency peso (75 = L1 in 1903, 70

= L1 in 1904, 58 = L1 in 1905) fluctuates between limits so wide that

conversion into sterling (especially for a series of years), with any

pretension to accuracy, is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange

moved between 710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official

statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in

Germany and England, amounted to L1,987,905 on the 1st of January

1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) amounted to

L704,730; total L2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of about L300,000.

_Government._--According to the constitution of December 1879 (modified

in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative power is vested in a

national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every 20,000 inhabitants) chosen

for 4 years by direct popular vote, under universal manhood suffrage.

The president of the republic is elected in a similar manner, but for 6

years, and he is theoretically not eligible for the following term. He

is assisted by 6 ministers, heads of government departments, and by a

council of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly

by the national assembly.

_Local Government._--Each of the twenty-two departments is administered

by an official called a _jefe politico_, or political chief, appointed

by the president, and each is subdivided into municipal districts. These

districts are administered by one or more _alcaldes_ or mayors, assisted

by municipal councils, both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the

people.

_Justice._--The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting

of a chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people;

six appeal courts, each with three judges, also elected by the people;

and twenty-six courts of first instance, each consisting of one judge

appointed by the president and two by the chief justice of the supreme

court.

_Religion and Instruction._--The prevailing form of religion is the

Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction of creed. The

establishment of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited. Of

the population in 1893, 90% could neither read nor write, 2% could only

read, and 8% could read and write. Primary instruction is nominally

compulsory, and, in government schools, is provided at the cost of the

state. In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There are

besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of similar

character, owners of plantations on which there are more than ten

children being obliged to provide school accommodation. Higher

instruction is given in two national institutes at the capital, one for

men with 500 pupils and one for women with 300. At Quezaltenango there

are two similar institutes, and at Chiquimula there are other two. To

each of the six there is a school for teachers attached, and within the

republic there are four other schools for teachers. For professional

instruction (law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by

private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. Other

educational establishments are a school of art, a national conservatory

of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools with more than 600

pupils and a national library. There is a German school, endowed by the

German government.

_Defence._--For the white and mixed population military service is

compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the

active army, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve. The

effective force of the active army is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400.

About 7000 officers and men are kept in regular service. Military

training is given in all public and most private schools.

_History._--Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de

Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 1837-1839 its history

differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of

Central America (q.v.). The colonial period was marked by the

destruction of the ancient Indian civilization, the extermination of

many entire tribes, and the enslavement of the survivors, who were

exploited to the utmost for the benefit of Spanish officials and

adventurers. But although the administration was weak, corrupt and

cruel, it succeeded in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in

introducing the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus

obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for more

liberal institutions. The Central American provinces revolted in 1821,

were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide from 1822 to 1823, and

united to form a federal republic from 1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the

Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal party was supreme; after a

protracted struggle it overthrew the Liberals or Federalists, and

declared the country an independent republic, with Rafael Carrera

(1814-1865) as president. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal

union failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras

and Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the

pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated,

and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in

1854 bestowed upon him for life. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d.

1865), president of Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At

Coatepeque the Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed

by a truce. Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa

Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour of

Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made himself

dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During the rest of his rule,

which lasted till his death in April 1865, he continued to act in

concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured to maintain friendly

relations with the European governments. Carrera's successor was General

Cerna, who had been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party

began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna was

deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were driven into

exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. Pres. Rufino

Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the country after the

manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, confiscated their

property and disestablished and disendowed the church. But though he

encouraged education, promoted railway and other enterprises, and

succeeded in settling difficulties as to the Mexican boundary, the

general result of his policy was baneful. Conspiracies against him were

rife, and in 1884 he narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to

be the restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and

when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had

recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of Honduras and Salvador,

he proclaimed himself, in February 1885, the supreme military chief of

Central America, and claimed the command of all the forces within the

five states. President Zaldivar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but

after the issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive

alliance with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded

Salvador, and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the

Guatemalan president was killed. He was succeeded by General Manuel

Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the union, and on the

16th of April the war was formally ended. Peace, however, only provided

opportunity for domestic conspiracy, with assassination and revolution

in view. In 1892 General Jose Maria Reina Barrios was elected president,

and in 1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was

assassinated. Senor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; but in the

same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was elected president for

the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted education, commerce and the

improvement of communications, but his re-election for the term

1905-1911 caused widespread discontent. He was charged with aiming at a

dictatorship, with permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment,

torture and execution without trial of political opponents, with

maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the

neighbouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of

adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by General

Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in March 1906 from

Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed

his intention of establishing a silver currency, and gained, to a great

extent, the sympathy of the German and British residents; he had been

the sole Guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own

tenure of office. Ocos was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo,

and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, Costa Rica

and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, while Nicaragua was

hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, and even gained several indecisive

victories. The intervention of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz

of Mexico brought about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the

so-called "Marblehead Pact" was signed on the following day on board the

United States cruiser "Marblehead." Its terms were embodied in a treaty

signed (28th of September) by representatives of the four belligerent

states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. The treaty

included regulations for the improvement of commerce and navigation in

the area affected by the war, and provided for the settlement of

subsequent disputes by the arbitration of the United States and Mexico.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the works cited under CENTRAL AMERICA see the

interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English missionary, in

Juarros, _Compendio de la historia de Guatemala_ (1808-1818, 2 vols.;

new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English translation (London, 1823)

long formed the chief authority. See also C. Juan Anino, _La Republica

de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1894); T. Brigham, _Guatemala, The Land of

the Quetzal_ (London, 1887); J. M. Caceres, _Geografia de

Centro-America_ (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, _Guia geografica de los

centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1882);

F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, _Historia de Guatemala o Recordacion

Florida_ (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. Maudslay, _A Glimpse at

Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient Monuments of Central America_

(London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, _The Republic of Guatemala_

(Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, _Historia del disenvolvimiento

intelectual de Guatemala_, vol. i. (Guatemala, 1897); Otto Stoll,

_Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-1883_ (Leipzig, 1886);

J. Mendez, _Guia del immigrante en la republica de Guatemala_

(Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, "Grundzuge der physikalischen

Geographie von Guatemala," Erganzungsheft No. 115, _Petermann's

Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1894); _Anuario de estadistica de la republica

de Guatemala_ (Guatemala); _Memoria de la Secretaria de Instruccion

Publica_ (Guatemala, 1899); _Handbook of Guatemala_, revised (Bureau

of the American Republics, Washington, 1897); _United States Consular

Reports_ (Washington); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular

Reports_ (London).

GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. "New Guatemala," sometimes

written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de

Guatemala), the capital of the republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of

the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in

Mexico and all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000.

Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide

table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so called

from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in the 16th

century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, and beyond it

lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest peaks being on the

south, where the volcanic summits of the Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft.

Guatemala has a station on the transcontinental railway from Puerto

Barrios on the Atlantic (190 m. N.E.) to San Jose on the Pacific (75 m.

S. by W.). It is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and

has a corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the

primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most

Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and regular

streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has extensive

suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one storey, are solidly and

comfortably constructed; many of them are surrounded by large gardens

and courts. Among the open spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which

contains the cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the

government buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more

modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the favourite resorts

of the inhabitants. There are many large schools for both sexes, besides

hospitals and an orphanage. Many of the principal buildings, such as the

military academy, were originally convents. The theatre, founded in

1858, is one of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831,

is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various ways has done

great service to the city and the country. There are two fortresses, the

Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael Carrera (see GUATEMALA [republic]

under _History_), and the Castello de San Jose. Water is brought from a

distance of about 8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and

Pinula; fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians

of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the appearance, of

Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris of Central America. It

is lighted by electricity and has a good telephone service. Its trade is

chiefly in coffee, but it also possesses cigar factories, wool and

cotton factories, breweries, tanneries and other industrial

establishments. The foreign trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.

The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja or "Old City,"

was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the conqueror of the country,

on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, and at the foot of the volcano of

Agua (i.e. "Water"). In 1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water

from the flooded crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago

de los Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly,

and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most populous place

in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and more than 100 churches

and convents. But in 1773 it was ruined by an earthquake. It was

rebuilt, and ultimately became capital of the department of

Sacatepeques, and a health-resort locally celebrated for its thermal

springs. But the Guatemalans determined to found a new capital on the

site occupied by the hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and

last city of Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in

1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the

construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area covered, and

the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to an ordinance which, in

order to minimize the danger from earthquakes, forbade the erection of

any building more than 20 ft. high. Many of the belfries of convents or

churches, added after the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were

overthrown by the earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part

of Antigua.

GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Paraguay. They

are of a European fairness and wear beards. They live almost entirely in

canoes, building rough shelters in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians

in the war with Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.

GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They are an active,

hardy people, who have always maintained hostility towards the Spaniards

and retain their independence. From their language they appear to be a

distinct stock. They were described by old writers as being very fair,

with flaxen hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded,

that they were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.

GUAVA (from the Mexican _guayaba_), the name applied to the fruits of

species of _Psidium_, a genus belonging to the natural order

_Myrtaceae_. The species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of

commerce is _Psidium Guajava_, a small tree from 15 to 20 ft. high, a

native of the tropical parts of America and the West Indies. It bears

short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, with strongly marked veins, and

covered with a soft tomentum or down. The flowers are borne on axillary

stalks, and the fruits vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous

forms and varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the

fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the white guava

(_P. Guajava_, var. _pyriferum_). The fruits are pear-shaped, about the

size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright yellow or whitish skin

filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish tinge, and having a

pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour. _P. Guajava_, var.

_pomiferum_, produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes

called the red guava. The pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker

colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first

named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are

used in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly

and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies and imported thence

to England; the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of

their importation in their natural state. Both varieties have been

introduced into various parts of India, as well as in other countries of

the East, where they have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course

much too tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there

in hothouses or stoves.

_Psidium variabile_ (also known as _P. Cattleyanum_), a tree of from 10

to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araca or Araca de Praya), is

known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very abundantly produced

in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, of a fine deep claret

colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp is soft, fleshy, purplish,

reddish next the skin, but becoming paler towards the middle and in the

centre almost or quite white. It has a very agreeable acid-sweet

flavour, which has been likened to that of a strawberry.

GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and

department of the same name, on the southern coast of Porto Rico, 53 m.

S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of

the district, 12,749. The district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and

Salinas. The city stands about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild,

healthy climate. It is connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with

the port of Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road

extending to Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle,

fruit and other products of the department, which is very fertile. The

city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed by fire in 1832.

It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses several buildings of

note. Drinking-water is brought in through an aqueduct.

GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL, a city and port of Ecuador, capital

of the province of Guayas, on the right bank of the Guayas river, 33 m.

above its entrance into the Gulf of Guayaquil, in 2 deg. 12' S., 79 deg.

51' W. Pop. (1890) 44,772; (1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds.

The city is built on a comparatively level _pajonal_ or savanna,

extending southward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros

de la Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the

Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower parts

of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season. The old town is

the upper or northern part, and is inhabited by the poorer classes, its

streets being badly paved, crooked, undrained, dirty and pestilential.

The great fire of 1896 destroyed a large part of the old town, and some

of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town,

or southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the better

classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are

provided with surface drainage only. Among the public buildings are the

governor's and bishop's palaces, town-hall, cathedral and 9 churches,

national college, episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine,

theatre, two hospitals, custom-house, and several asylums and charitable

institutions. Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation

with faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is that

the upper floors in the business streets project over the walks, forming

covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the

former from January to June, when the hot days are followed by nights of

drenching rain. The mean annual temperature is about 82 deg. to 83 deg.

F.; malarial and bilious fevers are common, the latter being known as

"Guayaquil fever," and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry

or summer season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply is

now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras 53 m. distant.

The mains pass under the Guayas river and discharge into a large

distributing reservoir on one of the hills N. of the city. The city is

provided with tramway and telephone services, the streets are lighted

with gas and electricity, and telegraph communication with the outside

world is maintained by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the

small port of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of

Guayaquil. Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June

1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing districts of

the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, on which boats run

regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in the dry season, and for a

distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For smaller boats there are about 200 m.

of navigation on this system of rivers. The exports of the province are

almost wholly transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at

Guayaquil, or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6-1/2 m. outside the Guayas

bar, on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable up to

Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger vessels anchor at

Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and passengers are transferred

to lighters and tenders. There is a quay on the river front, but the

depth alongside does not exceed 18 ft. The principal exports are cacao,

rubber, coffee, tobacco, hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and

ivory nuts, the value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877

_sucres_, in a total of 18,565,668 _sucres_ for the whole republic. In

1908 the exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 lb., valued at

$6,400,000; hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000;

coffee, valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000.

There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard,

saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, brewery,

and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water and

liqueurs.

Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the 25th of July

1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice abandoned before its

permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco de Orellana. It was captured

and sacked several times in the 17th and 18th centuries by pirates and

freebooters--by Jacob Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by

English freebooters under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in

1707 and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 1730,

and in 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence, a castle and

other fortifications were constructed. Owing to the flimsy construction

of its buildings Guayaquil has been repeatedly burned, the greater fires

occurring in 1707, 1764, 1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see

of a bishopric in 1837.

GUAYAS, or EL GUAYAS, a coast province of Ecuador, bounded N. by Manabi

and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Canar and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the

Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the

province of Manabi. Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It

is very irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts

surrounding the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras and

the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galapagos Islands, lying 600 m.

off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily forested and traversed

by numerous rivers, for the most part tributaries of the Guayas river,

which enters the gulf from the N. This river system has a drainage area

of about 14,000 sq. m. and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels

in the rainy season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and

Babahoyo or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces

and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, bilious and

malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is abundant and the soil

is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the collection of forest products

are the chief industries. The staple products are cacao, coffee,

sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. The cultivation of cacao is the

principal industry, the exports forming about one-third the world's

supply. Stock-raising is also carried on to a limited extent. Among

forest products are rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory

nuts. The manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the

toquilla palm (commonly called _jipijapa_, after a town in Manabi famous

for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry among the

natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity of the climate

greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate straws, which

would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas is the chief industrial and

commercial province of the republic, about nineteen-twentieths of the

commerce of Ecuador passing through the port of its capital, Guayaquil.

There are no land transport routes in the province except the Quito &

Guayaquil railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river

channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford

excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number of

small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are no large

towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Duran, on the Guayas river

opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the Quito railway and

contains the shops and offices of that line. The port of Santa Elena on

a bay of the same name, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point

of the West Coast cable, and a port of call for some of the regular

steamship lines. Its exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.

GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the Paraguay. The name

has been used generally of all the mounted Indians of Gran Chaco. The

Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, who paint their bodies and go

naked. They are fearless horsemen and are occupied chiefly in cattle

rearing.

GUAYMAS, or SAN JOSE DE GUAYMAS, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of

Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of California a few miles

W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in lat. 27 deg. 58' N., long. 110

deg. 58' W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour is one of the best on the W.

coast of Mexico, and the port is a principal outlet for the products of

the large state of Sonora. The town stands on a small, arid plain,

nearly shut in by mountains, and has a very hot, dry climate. It is

connected with the railways of the United States by a branch of the

Southern Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the

frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico. The exports

include gold, silver, hides and pearls.

GUBBIO (anc. _Iguvium_, q.v.; med. _Eugubium_), a town and episcopal see

of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 23 m.

N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of Fossato di Vico (on the line

between Foligno and Ancona) and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783

(town); 26,718 (commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the

steep slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, at

the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably on the

site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly medieval

appearance. The most prominent building is the Palazzo dei Consoli, on

the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria; it is a huge Gothic edifice

with a tower, erected in 1332-1346, according to tradition, by Matteo di

Giovanello of Gubbio, the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch

of the main door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this

arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on the slope

of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched substructures.

On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo Pretorio, or della Podesta,

begun in 1349 and now the municipal palace. It contains the famous

_Tabulae Iguvinae_, and a collection of paintings of the Umbrian school,

of furniture and of majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo

Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now

dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest point of the

town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes of Urbino in

1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability, Lucio da Laurana, to

whom is due the palace at Urbino, which this palace resembles,

especially in its fine colonnaded court. The Palazzo Beni, lower down,

belongs to a somewhat earlier period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V.

lodged here for a few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the

other hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. Here

Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the Palazzo Ducale is

the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e Jacopo, a structure of the

12th century, with a facade, adorned with contemporary sculptures,

partly restored in 1514-1550. The interior contains some good pictures

by Umbrian artists, a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine

Flemish cope given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The

exterior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part of the

town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the interior has

been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the Gothic churches of

S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, on the other hand, has its

Gothic interior better preserved. The whole town is full of specimens of

medieval architecture, the pointed arch of the 13th century being

especially prevalent. A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on

the 15th of May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three

colossal wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues

of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the town, and

then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo on the mountain-side

(2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, _The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri

at Gubbio_ (Folk-lore Society, London, 1897).

After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see IGUVIUM) the town

remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, after the destruction

of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed part of the donation of

Charlemagne to the pope. In the 11th century the beginnings of its

independence may be traced. In the struggles of that time it was

generally on the Ghibelline side. In 1151 it repelled an attack of

several neighbouring cities, and formed from this time a republic

governed by consuls. In 1155 it was besieged by the emperor Frederick

I., but saved by the intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was

granted privileges by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podesta,

and from this period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after

various political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of

Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of Urbino until, in

1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.

Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature painter

(1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his native town

(_Purg._ xi. 80 "_l'onor d'Agobbio_"), but no authentic works by him

exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch of the Umbrian school of

painting flourished here, the most famous masters of which were Guido

Palmerucci (1280-1345?) and several members of the Nelli family,

particularly Ottaviano (d. 1444), whose best work is the "Madonna del

Belvedere" in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved,

with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him is the group

of frescoes including a large "Last Judgment," and scenes from the life

of St Augustine, in the church of S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under

a coating of whitewash. These painters seem to have been influenced by

the contemporary masters of the Sienese school.

Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history of majolica.

In a decree of 1438 a _vasarius vasorum pictorum_ is mentioned, who

probably was not the first of his trade. The art was brought to

perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had emigrated hither from

Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen of Gubbio. The works by his hand

are remarkable for their ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre;

but only one small tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried

on by his sons, Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only

recovered in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci.

Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione, a large

water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th century; the water is

collected in the bed of a stream by a massive dam.

See A. Colasanti, _Gubbio_ (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, _Gubbio_

(London, 1905). (T. As.)

GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at the confluence

of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder, at the

junction of railways to Breslau, Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704;

(1905) 36,666. It possesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic

church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a

theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving of wool,

dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, hats, cloth, paper

and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the neighbourhood to some

extent, and there is also some trade in fruit and vegetables. Guben is

of Wendish origin. It is mentioned in 1207 and received civic rights in

1235. It was surrounded by walls in 1311, about which time it came into

the possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it passed to

Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the Hussites, and in 1631

and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes. By the peace of Prague in 1635

it came into the possession of the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it

was, with the rest of Lower Lusatia, united to Prussia.

GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, COUNT (1840- ), Italian man of letters, was born

at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, where he studied philology.

In 1862 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit at Florence, but having

married a cousin of the Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his

views he resigned his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was

reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred to the

university of Rome. He became prominent both as an orientalist, a

publicist and a poet. He founded the _Italia letteraria_ (1862), the

_Rivista orientale_ (1867), the _Civitta italiana_ and _Rivista europea_

(1869), the _Bollettino italiano degli studii orientali_ (1876) and the

_Revue internationale_ (1883), and in 1887 became director of the

_Giornale della societa asiatica_. In 1878 he started the _Dizionario

biografico degli scrittori contemporanei_. His Oriental and mythological

works include the _Piccola enciclopedia indiana_ (1867), the _Fonti

vediche_ (1868), a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and

another on plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic

_Storia universale della letteratura_ (1882-1885). His work in verse

includes the dramas _Cato_, _Romolo_, _Il re Nala_, _Don Rodrigo_,

_Savitri_, &c.

GUDBRANDSDAL, a district in the midlands of southern Norway, comprising

the upper course of the river Lougen or Laagen from Lillehammer at the

head of Lake Mjosen to its source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary

valleys. Lillehammer, the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N.

of Christiania by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded

and cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward into

the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving routes run

across the watershed and descend the western slope, where the scenery is

incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal itself--(a) past Sorum, with the

13th-century churches of Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the

Stavekirke or timber-built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful

falls of the Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on

the Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (b) past Domaas (with

branch road north to Storen near Trondhjem, skirting the Dovrefjeld),

over the watershed formed by Lesjekogen Lake, which drains in both

directions, and down through the magnificent Romsdal.

GUDE (GUDIUS), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeologist and classical

scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein on the 1st of February 1635.

He was originally intended for the law, but from an early age showed a

decided preference for classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in

the hope of finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following

year, through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of

tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, Samuel

Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity of copying

inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his pupil, who had

become greatly attached to him, Gude refused more than one professional

appointment, and it was not until 1671 that he accepted the post of

librarian to Duke Christian Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had

accompanied Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his

property. In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into

private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V. of

Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery, and

remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th of November

1689. Gude's great life-work, the collection of Greek and Latin

inscriptions, was not published till 1731. Mention may also be made of

his _editio princeps_ (1661) of the treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on

Antichrist, and of his notes on Phaedrus (with four new fables

discovered by him) published in P. Burmann's edition (1698).

His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important

authority for the events of Gude's life, besides containing valuable

information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, _Cimbria

literata_, iii., and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_,

x.

GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862- ), American classical scholar, was born in

Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. He graduated at Columbia

University in 1883 and studied under Hermann Diels at the University of

Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 he was reader in classical philology at Johns

Hopkins University, from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of

Pennsylvania, and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In

1904 he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the Wolfflin

_Thesaurus linguae Latinae_--a unique distinction for an American

Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, with German

commentary, of Tacitus' _Agricola_ in 1902 by the Weidmannsche

Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote _Latin Literature of the Empire_ (2

vols., _Prose and Poetry_, 1898-1899), a _History of Classical

Philology_ (1902) and _Sources of Plutarch's Life of Cicero_ (1902); and

edited Tacitus' _Dialogus de oratoribus_ (text with commentary, 1894 and

1898) and _Agricola_ (1899; with _Germania_, 1900), and Sallust's

_Catiline_ (1903).

GUDGEON (_Gobio fluviatilis_), a small fish of the Cyprinid family. It

is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel or fleshy

appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the _gobione_ of Italy,

_goujon_ of France (whence adapted in M. English as _gojon_), and

_Grassling_ or _Grundling_ of Germany. Gudgeons thrive in streams and

lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom exceeding 8 in. in length. In

China and Japan there are varieties differing only slightly from the

common European type.

GUDRUN (KUDRUN), a Middle High German epic, written probably in the

early years of the 13th century, not long after the _Nibelungenlied_,

the influence of which may be traced upon it. It is preserved in a

single MS. which was prepared at the command of Maximilian I., and was

discovered as late as 1820 in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author

was an unnamed Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle

of sagas, which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic

falls into three easily distinguishable parts--the adventures of King

Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, who

woos and wins Hagen's daughter Hilde, and lastly, the more or less

parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins, in opposition to

her father's wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is

carried off by a king of Normandy, and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit,

are defeated in a great battle on the island of Wulpensand off the Dutch

coast. The finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a

prisoner in the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor,

and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household. Here,

thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find her washing

clothes by the sea; on the following day they attack the Norman castle

with their army and carry out the long-delayed retribution.

The epic of _Gudrun_ is not unworthy to stand beside the greater

_Nibelungenlied_, and it has been aptly compared with it as the

_Odyssey_ to the _Iliad_. Like the _Odyssey_, Gudrun is an epic of the

sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely round the conflict of

human passions; nor is it built up round one all-absorbing,

all-dominating idea like the _Nibelungenlied_. Scenery and incident are

more varied, and the poet has an opportunity for a more lyric

interpretation of motive and character. _Gudrun_ is composed in stanzas

similar to those of the _Nibelungenlied_, but with the essential

difference that the last line of each stanza is identical with the

others, and does not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic

of the _Nibelungen_ metre.

_Gudrun_ was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his

_Heldenbuch_ (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J.

Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those by K.

Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem for Kurschner's

_Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (vol. 6, 1885), by B. Symons (1883) and

by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmuller first applied Lachmann's

ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. Mullenhoff (_Kudrun, die

echten Teile des Gedichts_, 1845) rejected more than three-quarters of

the whole as "not genuine." There are many translations of the epic

into modern German, the best known being that of K. Simrock (15th ed.,

1884). A translation into English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston,

U.S.A., in 1889.

See K. Bartsch, _Beitrage zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun_

(1865); H. Keck, _Die Gudrunsage_ (1867); W. Wilmanns, _Die

Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung_ (1873); A. Fecamp, _Le Poeme de

Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire_ (1892); F. Panzer,

_Hilde-Gudrun_ (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the saga

see O. Benedict, _Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur_ (1902.)

GUEBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, COMTE DE (1602-1643), marshal of France,

was born at Plessis-Budes, near St Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He

served first in Holland, and in the Thirty Years' War he commanded from

1638 to 1639 the French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of

Saxe-Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of

Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received the command of

his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. Baner (1596-1641), the

Swedish general, a bold attack upon Regensburg (1640). His victories of

Wolfenbuttel on the 29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him

the marshal's baton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria in

concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally wounded

there on the 17th of November 1643.

A biography was published by Le Laboureur, _Histoire du mareschal de

Guebriant_, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in _Wurttembergische

Vierteljahrschrift fur Landesgeschichte_ (1902).

GUELDER ROSE, so called from Guelderland, its supposed source, termed

also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. _Wasserholder_,

_Schneeball_; Fr. _viorne-obier_, _l'obier d'Europe_), known botanically

as _Viburnum Opulus_, a shrub or small tree of the natural order

Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and widely distributed in the

temperate and colder parts of Europe, Asia and North America. It is

common in Ireland, but rare in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12

ft., and it thrives best in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2

to 3 in. broad, with 3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular

stipules adnate to the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal

bright green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in

June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in. in

diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an enlarged corolla,

3/4 in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens or pistils; in the common

cultivated variety all the flowers are sterile and the inflorescence is

globular, hence the term "snowball tree" applied to the plant, the

appearance of which at the time of flowering has been prettily described

by Cowper in his _Winter Walk at Noon_. The guelder rose bears juicy,

red, elliptical berries, 1/3 in. long, which ripen in September, and

contain each a single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are

eaten, and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled

for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic

properties; and Taylor (_Med. Jurisp._ i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) has

recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by the berries.

Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid. The woody shoots of the

guelder rose are manufactured into various small articles in Sweden and

Russia. Another member of the genus, _Viburnum_, _Lantana_, wayfaring

tree, is found in dry copses and hedges in England, except in the north.

GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, on the river

Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901)

11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural district, and exports

grain, fruit and live-stock in large quantities. It contains, in

addition to the county and municipal buildings, the Ontario Agricultural

College, which draws students from all parts of North and South America.

The river affords abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills,

woollen-mills and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements,

sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief.

GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless Italianized forms of

the German words Welf and Waiblingen, although one tradition says that

they are derived from Guelph and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia.

Another theory derives Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the

Sicilian Arabs to translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story

tells how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between the

German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a member of the

powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria,

belonged, the soldiers of the latter raised the cry "Hie Welf!" to which

the king's troops replied with "Hie Waiblingen!" this being the name of

one of Conrad's castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen,

of which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, and had

been for some years a prominent fact in the history of Swabia and

Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy--in a slightly modified

form, however--only dates from the time of the Italian expeditions of

the emperor Frederick I. It is about this time that the German

chronicler, Otto of Freising, says, "Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae

Germaniaeve fines famosae familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de

Gueibelinga, alia Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera

magnos duces producere solita." Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick

was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related also to

the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some extent the rivalry

between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, it opened it upon a larger and

fiercer scale in Italy.

During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick's Italian

campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were the cities of the

Lombard League, became known as Welfs, or Guelphs, while his partisans

seized upon the rival term of Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the

contest between these two parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown

even to the inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of

northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns, the

savage hatred between family and family, were some of the causes which

fed this feud, and it reached its height during the momentous struggle

between Frederick II. and the Papacy in the 13th century. The story of

the contest between Guelph and Ghibelline, however, is little less than

the history of Italy in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th

century it was intensified by the fight for the German and imperial

thrones between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the

Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., a fight waged

in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir of Philip of Swabia

and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick II. was forced to throw

himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, while his enemies, the popes,

ranged themselves definitely among the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and

Ghibelline became synonymous with supporter of pope and emperor.

After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines looked for

leadership to his son and successor, the German king, Conrad IV., and

then to his natural son, Manfred, while the Guelphs called the French

prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid. But the combatants were nearing

exhaustion, and after the execution of Conradin, the last of the

Hohenstaufen, in 1268, this great struggle began to lose force and

interest. Guelph and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and

family rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were taken

with little or no regard for their original significance, and in the

15th century they began to die out of current politics. However, when

Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the beginning of the 16th

century the old names were revived; the French king's supporters were

called Guelphs and the friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were

referred to as Ghibellines.

The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the walls of almost

every city of northern Italy, and the contest between the parties, which

practically makes the history of Florence during the 13th century, is

specially noteworthy. First one side and then the other was driven into

exile; the Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was

followed by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in

1266, and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other

cities (see FLORENCE).

The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very nebulous, of

Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the foreigner rather than

any strong affection for the Papacy was the feeling which bound the

Guelph to the pope, and so enabled the latter to defy the arms of

Frederick II. The Ghibelline cause, on the other hand, was aided by the

dislike of the temporal power of the pope and the desire for a strong

central authority. This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this

party, kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, were

extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes the

constituents of the two parties: "The Guelph party meant the burghers of

the consular Communes, the men of industry and commerce, the upholders

of civil liberty, the friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline

party included the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the

advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitutional

progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church floated over the

one camp, while the standard of the empire rallied to itself the hostile

party, was a matter of comparatively superficial moment." In another

passage the same writer thus describes the sharp and universal division

between Guelph and Ghibelline: "Ghibellines wore the feathers in their

caps upon one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at

table crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out of

smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore white and

Guelphs red roses." It is interesting to note that while Dante was a

Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.

See J. A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_, vol. i. (1875).

GUENEVERE (Lat. _Guanhumara_; Welsh, _Gwenhwyfar_; O. Eng. _Gaynore_),

in Arthurian romance the wife of King Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who

calls her Guanhumara, makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition

is that she was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance. Wace,

who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and used, popular

tradition, combines these two, asserting that she was of Roman parentage

on the mother's side, but cousin to Cador of Cornwall by whom she was

brought up. The tradition relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused

and demands further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three

Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of the royal

tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as that of Arthur's

second wife; the prose _Merlin_ gives Guenevere a bastard half-sister of

the same name, who strongly resembles her; and the _Lancelot_ relates

how this lady, trading on the likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was

the true daughter of Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper.

This episode of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.

To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known in connexion

with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in the hands of Malory and

Tennyson, has assumed a form widely different from the original

conception, and at once more picturesque and more convincing. In the

French romances Lancelot is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his

birth is not recorded till long after the marriage of Arthur and

Guenevere, and he is at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The

relations between them are of the most conventional and courtly

character, and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion which

marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The _Lancelot-Guenevere_

romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere encouraged by

such patronesses of literature as Eleanor of Aquitaine and her daughter

Marie, Comtesse de Champagne (for whom Chretien de Troyes wrote his

_Chevalier de la Charrette_), and reflects the low social morality of a

time when love between husband and wife was declared impossible. But

though Guenevere has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity

is of much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian

legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the _Vita Gildae_ relates

how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva Regis, to Glastonbury,

whither Arthur, at the head of an army, pursued the ravisher. A fragment

of a Welsh poem seems to confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at

the root of her later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the _Lanzelet_ of

Ulrich von Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerin. The story in these forms

represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of Welsh

dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his _Studies on the Arthurian

Legend_, appears to represent Kay as the abductor. In the

pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them the abductor is

Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt that the lady was no

unwilling victim. On the final defeat of Mordred she retires to a

nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more heard of. Wace says

emphatically--

_Ne fu oie ne veue,

Ne fu trovee, ne seue

Por la vergogne del mesfait

Et del pecie qu ele avoit fait_ (11. 13627-30).

Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original much as Wace

treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition that she had drowned

herself, and that her memory and that of Mordred were hateful in every

land, so that none would offer prayer for their souls. On the other hand

certain romances, e.g. the _Perceval_, give her an excellent character.

The truth is probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and

treachery was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected

for a time, was brought again into prominence by the social conditions

of the courts for which the later romances were composed; and it is in

this later and conventionalized form that the tale has become familiar

to us (see also LANCELOT).

See _Studies on the Arthurian Legend_ by Professor Rhys; _The Legend

of Sir Lancelot_, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston; _Der

Karrenritter_, ed. Professor Foerster. (J. L. W.)

GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an ape), the name

applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the African genus

_Cercopithecus_, the Ethiopian representative of the Asiatic macaques,

from which they differ by the absence of a posterior heel to the last

molar in the lower jaw.

GUERET, a town of central France, capital of the department of Creuse,

situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges on the Orleans

railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune (including troops, &c.), 8058.

Apart from the Hotel des Monneyroux (used as prefecture), a picturesque

mansion of the 15th and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned

windows, Gueret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a

prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a

chamber of commerce and lycees and training colleges, for both sexes.

The industries include brewing, saw-milling, leather-making and the

manufacture of basket-work and wooden shoes, and there is trade in

agricultural produce and cattle. Gueret grew up round an abbey founded

in the 7th century, and in later times became the capital of the

district of Marche.

GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white Abyssinian

monkey, _Colobus guereza_ (or _C. abyssinicus_), characterized by the

white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. Other east African monkeys

with a similar type of colouring, which, together with the wholly black

west African _C. satanas_, collectively constitute the subgenus

_Guereza_, may be included under the same title; and the name may be

further extended to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the

genus _Colobus_. These monkeys are the African representatives of the

Indo-Malay langurs (_Semnopithecus_), with which they agree in their

slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs, although

differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members of the subgenus

_Guereza_ present a transition from a wholly black animal (_C. satanas_)

to one (_C. caudatus_) in which the sides of the face are white, and the

whole flanks, as well as the tail, clothed with a long fringe of pure

white hairs.

GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-1878), German theologian, was

born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th of February 1803 and studied

theology at Halle, where he was appointed professor in 1829. He greatly

disliked the union between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which

had been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in 1833 he

definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In 1835 he lost his

professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among his works were a Life

of _August Hermann Francke_ (1827, Eng. trans. 1837), _Church History_

(1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd, New York, 1857-1863), _Allgemeine

christliche Symbolik_ (1839). In 1840 he helped to found the

_Zeitschrift fur die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche_, and he

died at Halle on the 4th of February 1878.