[1] It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, _Archaeologia_,
iii. 157) as "grows" in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal
household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.," i.e. 1531,
and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is found in
an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, S 2, i.e. 1603, and, as
reprinted in the _Statutes at Large_, stands as now commonly spelt,
but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 17th
and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had "Poule griesche. A
Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 "Griece"] or
Mooregame" (_Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, s.v.
Poule_). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old French
word _griesche_, _greoche_ or _griais_ (meaning speckled, and cognate
with _griseus_, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind of
partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (_Tres._ p. 211) to a
quail, "porce que ele fu premiers trovee en Grece." The Oxford
Dictionary repudiates the possibility of "grouse" being a spurious
singular of an alleged plural "grice," and, with regard to the
possibility of "grows" being a plural of "grow," refers to Giraldus
Cambrensis (c. 1210), _Topogr. Hib. opera_ (Rolls) v. 47: "gallinae
campestres, quas vulgariter _grutas_ vocant."
[2] It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by Mr
Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden (_Svenska
Jagarforbundets Nya Tidskrift_, 1868, p. 64 _et alibi_).
[3] A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether
_Lagopus scoticus_ or _L. albus_ has varied most from the common
stock of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only
species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter,
an evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its
case; but then it must be borne in mind that the species of _Lagopus_
which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the
family _Tetraonidae_. Furthermore every species of _Lagopus_ (even
_L. leucurus_, the whitest of all) has its first set of _remiges_
coloured brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown,
and in all the species but _L. scoticus_ white _remiges_ are then
produced. If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in
the course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through
which the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the
species of _Lagopus_ wore a brown livery even when adult, and the
white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by
causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the birds
of this group protects them from danger during the snows of a
protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating
directly the more ancient properties of an original _Lagopus_ that
underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its
ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch
comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked
Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the
assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation
of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some
modifications) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as
that of the primal _Lagopus_.
GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, was born at
Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer,
and worked for two years in a factory near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he
was employed in the West Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and
Bermuda. In 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852
to the Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and
enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw all the
weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all
schools in connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at Sydenham,
which had a long and honourable career under the direction of Mr
(afterwards Sir) August Manns. Without Sir George Grove that eminent
conductor would hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage
young composers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's
analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works presented at
the concerts, set the pattern of what such things should be; and it was
as a result of these, and of the fact that he was editor of _Macmillan's
Magazine_ from 1868 to 1883, that the scheme of his famous _Dictionary
of Music and Musicians_, published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition,
edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed.
His own articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert are
monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest of the book
is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great length is hardly
to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed to the _Dictionary
of the Bible_, and had promoted the foundation of the Palestine
Exploration Fund. On a journey to Vienna, undertaken in the company of
his lifelong friend, Sir Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a
large number of compositions by Schubert was made, including the music
to _Rosamunde_. When the Royal College of Music was founded in 1882 he
was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of knighthood. He
brought the new institution into line with the most useful European
conservatoriums. On the completion of the new buildings in 1894 he
resigned the directorship, but retained an active interest in the
institution to the end of his life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of
May 1900.
His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.
(J. A. F. M.)
GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge and man of science,
was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, South Wales. After being
educated by private tutors, he went to Brasenose College, Oxford, where
he took an ordinary degree in 1832. Three years later he was called to
the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to
devote himself strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with
scientific studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic
cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these
exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, Finsbury
Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers appointed him to the
professorship of experimental philosophy, an office which he held for
seven years. His researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry
and with the voltaic cell, of which he invented several varieties. One
of these, the Grove gas-battery, which is of special interest both
intrinsically and as the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in
use for the "storage" of electricity, was based on his observation that
a current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing in
acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the other in oxygen.
At one of his lectures at the Institution he anticipated the electric
lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent
electric lamps, the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied
by a battery of his nitric acid cells. In 1846 he published his famous
book on _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, the leading ideas of which
he had already put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception
was that each of the forces of nature--light, heat, electricity, &c.--is
definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that where
experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because the initial
force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into other
unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal medal from the
Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on "Certain phenomena of voltaic
ignition and the decomposition of water into its constituent gases." In
1866 he presided over the British Association at its Nottingham meeting
and delivered an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But
while he was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not
neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he became
a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an advocate
was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, whom he defended. In
1871 he was made a judge of the Common Pleas in succession to Sir Robert
Collier, and remained on the bench till 1887. He died in London on the
1st of August 1896.
A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of
_The Correlation of Physical Forces_, published in 1874.
GROVE (O.E. _graf_, cf. O.E. _groefa_, brushwood, later "greave"; the
word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the _New
English Dictionary_ finds no Indo-European root to which it can be
referred; Skeat considers it connected with "grave," to cut, and finds
the original meaning to be a glade cut through a wood), a small group or
cluster of trees, growing naturally and forming something smaller than a
wood, or planted in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a
park, &c. Groves have been connected with religious worship from the
earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its sacred
group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred groves see
TREE-WORSHIP.
The word "grove" was used by the authors of the Authorized Version of
the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) _'eshel_, as in Gen. xxi.
33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the Revised Version
as "tamarisk"; (2) _asherah_ in many places throughout the Old
Testament. Here the translators followed the Septuagint [Greek: alsos]
and the Vulgate _lucus_. The _'[)a]sherah_ was a wooden post erected
at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also by the altars of
Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.
GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, in the province
of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. of Vladikavkaz, on the
railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha wells close by. The
fortifications were constructed in 1819. Pop. (1897) 15,599.
GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The word is formed
from the verb "to grub," to dig, break up the surface of the ground,
and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. According to the _New English
Dictionary_, "grub" may be referred to an ablaut variant of the Old
Teutonic _grab_-, to dig, cf. "grave." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._ 1898) refers
it rather to the root seen in "grope," "grab," &c., the original meaning
"to search for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in
the sense of food in the _New English Dictionary_ is dated 1659 from
_Ancient Poems, Ballads_, &c., Percy Society Publications.
"Grub-street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from
the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields,
London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says "much inhabited by
writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary poems."
GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic and literary
historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on the 29th of November
1774. He received his education at the town school of Naumburg and the
university of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at Gottingen,
Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and
partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the
friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed
professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division of
Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the
university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was
effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was
associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work
_Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste_; and after the
death of Ersch he continued the first section from vol. xviii. to vol.
liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the editorship of the _Allgemeine
Literaturzeitung_. He died on the 7th of August 1851.
Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of
which are _Charakteristik Herders_ (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction
with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of theology
at Jena; _Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
1806); _Worterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie_ (3 vols., Weimar,
1810-1815); _Wielands Leben_ (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), and
_Klopstocks Leben_ (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's _Samtliche
Werke_ (Leipzig, 1818-1828).
GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1503-1567), German adventurer, chiefly known
through his connexion with the so-called "Grumbach feuds" (_Grumbachsche
Handel_), the last attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of
the territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family, he was
born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some time at the court
of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought against the peasants
during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About 1540 Grumbach became
associated with Albert Alcibiades, the turbulent prince of Bayreuth,
whom he served both in peace and war. After the conclusion of the peace
of Passau in 1552, Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in
Franconia and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy,
Melchior von Zobel, bishop of Wurzburg. As a landholder Grumbach was a
vassal of the bishops of Wurzburg, and had held office at the court of
Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540 to 1544. When, however, Zobel
was chosen to succeed Conrad the harmonious relations between lord and
vassal were quickly disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates
from the suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he
decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with Albert
was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert's career, however, was
checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July 1553 and his subsequent
flight into France, and the bishop took advantage of this state of
affairs to seize Grumbach's lands. The knight obtained an order of
restitution from the imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_),
but he was unable to carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of
his partisans seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was
innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he fled to
France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in person before the
diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. Meanwhile he had found a
new patron in John Frederick, duke of Saxony, whose father, John
Frederick, had been obliged to surrender the electoral dignity to the
Albertine branch of his family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke
listened readily to Grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity,
including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition of
Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were employed against the
duke's enemies, and communications from angels were invented which
helped to stir up the zeal of the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked
Wurzburg, seized and plundered the city and compelled the chapter and
the bishop to restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the
imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the
emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. Meanwhile
Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the Saxon elector,
Augustus; proclamations were issued calling for assistance; and
alliances both without and within Germany were concluded. In November
1566 John Frederick was placed under the ban, which had been renewed
against Grumbach earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against
Gotha. Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the
capitulation of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and, after
being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April 1567.
See F. Ortloff, _Geschichte der Grumbachschen Handel_ (Jena,
1868-1870), and J. Voigt, _Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Handel_
(Leipzig, 1846-1847).
GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, 33 m. S. of
Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. by the Via
Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward to Heraclea. It
seems to have been a native Lucanian town, not a Greek settlement. In
215 B.C. the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated under its walls,
and in 207 B.C. Hannibal made it his headquarters. In the Social War it
appears as a strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides
at different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of Sulla, at
latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some importance. Its
site, identified by Holste from the description of the martyrdom of St
Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960
ft. above sea-level, 1/2 m. below the modern Saponara, which lies much
higher (2533 ft.). Its ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of
a large amphitheatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania,
except that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre.
Inscriptions record the repair of its town walls and the construction of
_thermae_ (of which remains were found) in 57-51 B.C., the construction
in 43 B.C., of a portico, remains of which may be seen along an ancient
road, at right angles to the main road, which traversed Grumentum from
S. to N.
See F. P. Caputi in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1877), 129, and G. Patroni,
ibid. (1897) 180. (T. As.)
GRUN. HANS BALDUNG (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grun, a German
painter of the age of Durer, was born at Gmund in Swabia, and spent the
greater part of his life at Strassburg and Freiburg in Breisgau. The
earliest pictures assigned to him are altarpieces with the monogram H.
B. interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of
Lichtenthal near Baden. Another early work is a portrait of the emperor
Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the
print-room at Carlsruhe. The "Martyrdom of St Sebastian" and the
"Epiphany" (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted
for the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grun purchased the
freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, when he
moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a series of large
compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed on the high altar of
the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom of Strassburg in
1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a member of its
great town council 1545.
Though nothing is known of Grun's youth and education, it may be
inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which
Durer was the chief. Gmund is but 50 m. distant on either side from
Augsburg and Nuremberg. Grun prints were often mistaken for those of
Durer; and Durer himself was well acquainted with Grun's woodcuts and
copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands
(1520). But Grun's prints, though Dureresque, are far below Durer, and
his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute correctness as a
draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant,
whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and
"baroque." Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like
shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities.
No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade.
Though Grun has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his
compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours,
in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure
red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features
are indicated by lines. His works are mainly interesting because of the
wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. We may pass
lightly over the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the
"Stoning of Stephen" of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force
in the "Dance of Death" of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the
"Madonna" of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grun's best
effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the "Coronation of the
Virgin," and the "Twelve Apostles," the "Annunciation, Visitation,
Nativity and Flight into Egypt," and the "Crucifixion," with portraits
of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin
Schon bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter he is well
known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well as that of
Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells
us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as
1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of
Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture
containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at
Carlsruhe. Like Durer and Cranach, Grun became a hearty supporter of the
Reformation. He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of
his woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy Ghost,
which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.
GRUNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully situated
between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, and on the railway from
Breslau to Stettin via Kustrin, 36 m. N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905)
20,987. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a modern
school and a technical (textiles) school. There are manufactures of
cloth, paper, machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity
of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood,
from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity of grapes, about
700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured annually.
GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872), Danish poet, statesman
and divine, was born at the parsonage of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of
September 1783. In 1791 he was sent to live at the house of a priest in
Jutland, and studied at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to
the university of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university
life he made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the
position of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three
years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. His
cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to Copenhagen in
1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his lectures and the early
poetry of Ohlenschlager opened the eyes of Grundtvig to the new era in
literature. His first work, _On the Songs in the Edda_, attracted no
attention. Returning to Copenhagen in 1808 he achieved greater success
with his _Northern Mythology_, and again in 1809-1811 with a long epic
poem, the _Decline of the Heroic Life in the North_. The boldness of the
theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended the
ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish as his
father's assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published five or
six works, of which the _Rhyme of Roskilde_ is the most remarkable. From
1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical journal entitled _Dannevirke_,
and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo
Grammaticus and Snorri. During these years he was preaching against
rationalism to an enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he
accepted in 1821 the country living of Praesto, only to return to the
metropolis the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, _The
Church's Reply_, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in
the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted and
fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, years which he
spent in publishing a collection of his theological works, in paying two
visits to England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon. In 1832 he obtained
permission to preach again, and in 1839 he became priest of the
workhouse church of Vartov hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to
hold until his death. In 1837-1841 he published _Songs for the Danish
Church_, a rich collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a
selection of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon
poem of the _Phoenix_, with a Danish translation. He visited England a
third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the first German war Grundtvig
took a very prominent part in politics. In 1861 he received the titular
rank of bishop, but without a see. He went on writing occasional poems
till 1866, and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before
his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he soon had
a following. His hymn-book effected a great change in Danish church
services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow
measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The chief characteristic of his
theology was the substitution of the authority of the "living word" for
the apostolic commentaries, and he desired to see each congregation a
practically independent community. His patriotism was almost a part of
his religion, and he established popular schools where the national
poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction. His
followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three times, the
last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the 2nd of September
1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in the literature of his
country; he has been styled the Danish Carlyle. He was above all things
a man of action, not an artist; and the formless vehemence of his
writings, which have had a great influence over his own countrymen, is
hardly agreeable or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his
poetical works were published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his
eldest son, Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on
Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of old Danish
poetry (_Danmarks gamle Folkeviser_, 1853-1883, 5 vols.; completed in
1891 by A. Olrik).
His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig (1882);
his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schroder (1888); see
also F. Winkel Horn, _Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning_ (1883); and an
article by F. Nielsen in Bricka's _Dansk Biografisk Lexikon_.
GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848- ), English dramatist, was born at Manchester on
the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman Charles Sydney Grundy. He was
educated at Owens College, Manchester, and was called to the bar in
1869, practising in Manchester until 1876. His farce, _A Little Change_,
was produced at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known as
an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction being
_The Snowball_ (Strand Theatre, 1879) from _Oscar, ou le mari qui trompe
sa femme_ by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and _In Honour Bound_ (1880) from
Scribe's _Une Chaine_. In 1887 he made a popular success with _The Bells
of Haslemere_, written with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi.
In 1889-1890 he produced two ingenious original comedies, _A White Lie_
(Court Theatre) and _A Fool's Paradise_ (Gaiety Theatre), which had been
played two years earlier at Greenwich as _The Mouse-Trap_. These were
followed by _Sowing the Wind_ (Comedy, 1893), _An Old Jew_ (Garrick,
1894), and by an adaptation of Octave Feuillet's _Montjoye as A Bunch of
Violets_ (Haymarket, 1894). In 1894 he produced _The New Woman_ and _The
Slaves of the Ring_; in 1895, _The Greatest of These_, played by Mr and
Mrs Kendal at the Garrick Theatre; _The Degenerates_ (Haymarket, 1899),
and _A Debt of Honour_ (St James's 1900). Among Mr Grundy's most
successful adaptations were the charming _Pair of Spectacles_ (Garrick,
1890) from _Les Petits Oiseaux_ of MM. Labiche and Delacour. Others
were _A Village Priest_ (Haymarket, 1890) from _Le Secret de la
terreuse_, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and Cauvin; _A Marriage of
Convenience_ (Haymarket, 1897) from _Un Mariage de Louis XV_, by Alex.
Dumas, pere, _The Silver Key_ (Her Majesty's, 1897) from his _Mlle de
Belle-isle_, and _The Musqueteers_ (1899) from the same author's novel;
_Frocks and Frills_ (Haymarket, 1902) from the _Doigts de fees_ of MM.
Scribe and Legouve; _The Garden of Lies_ (St James's Theatre, 1904) from
Mr Justus Miles Forman's novel; _Business is Business_ (His Majesty's
Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from Octave Mirbeau's _Les
Affaires sont les affaires_; and _The Diplomatists_ (Royalty Theatre,
1905) from _La Poudre aux yeux_, by Labiche.
GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character, who typifies
the disciplinary control of the conventional "proprieties" of society
over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of the opinion of neighbours on
the acts of others. The name appears in a play of Thomas Morton, _Speed
the Plough_ (1798), in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield,
continually refers to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the
criterion of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play,
but is a kind of "Mrs Harris" to Dame Ashfield.
GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of the first connected
attempt to describe in detail the snowy mountains of Switzerland. His
father, Johann Rudolf Gruner (1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in
the Bernese Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great
collector of information relating to historical and scientific matters;
his great _Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius ditionis Bernensis_
(4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., but in 1732 he
published a small work entitled _Deliciae urbis Bernae_, while he
possessed an extensive cabinet of natural history objects. Naturally
such tastes had a great influence on the mind of his son, who was born
at Trachselwald, and educated by his father and at the Latin school at
Burgdorf, not going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a
dissertation on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as
a notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in 1743
accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to Silesia and the
university of Halle. He returned to his native land before 1749, when he
obtained a post at Thorberg, being transferred in 1764 to Landshut and
Fraubrunnen. It was in 1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his
chief work, _Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes_ (bad French translation
by M. de Keralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by a
detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not so much on
personal experience as on older works, and a very large number of
communications received by Gruner from numerous friends; the third
volume deals with glaciers in general, and their various properties.
Though in many respects imperfect, Gruner's book sums up all that was
known on the subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later
writers. The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he
republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of the
information contained in his larger work, but thrown into the form of
letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various spots, under the
title of _Reisen durch die merkwurdigsten Gegenden Helvetiens_ (2
vols.). (W. A. B. C.)
GRUNEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of this German painter,
a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously contradictory. Between 1518 and
1530, according to statements adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was
commissioned by Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz,
to produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice and
Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted himself of this
duty with such cleverness that the prelate in after years caused the
picture to be rescued from the Reformers and brought back to
Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches of that city it was taken to the
Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen
between four saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic,
and so like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call
Grunewald Cranach's master. He also traced the same hand and technical
execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg and Heilbronn, and in
various panels exhibited in the museums of Mainz, Darmstadt,
Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A later race of critics, declining to
accept the statements of Waagen and Passavant, affirm that there is no
documentary evidence to connect Grunewald with the pictures of Halle and
Annaberg, and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg to
show that Grunewald is the painter of pictures of a different class.
They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece of
Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and starting from these
premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer and Durer to the
exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the Palatinate should have been
asked to execute pictures for a church in Saxony can scarcely be
accounted strange, since we observe that Hans Baldung (Grun) was
entrusted with a commission of this kind. But that a painter of
Aschaffenburg should display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed
incredible, unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case
documents are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond
the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the altarpiece
of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching was altogether
different from that of the painter of the pictures of Halle and
Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine and powerful work,
completed as local records show before 1516 by a Swabian, whose
distinguishing mark is that he followed the traditions of Martin
Schongauer, and came under the influence of Altdorfer and Durer. As a
work of art the altarpiece is important, being a poliptych of eleven
panels, a carved central shrine covered with a double set of wings, and
two side pieces containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits
Anthony and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the
Resurrection, the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St
Anthony, and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author
of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes
described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and now in part in the
Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in the museum of Basel,
registered in Amerbach's inventory as the work of Grunewald.
GRUTER (or GRUYTERE), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and scholar of Dutch
parentage by his father's side and English by his mother's, was born at
Antwerp on the 3rd of December 1560. To avoid religious persecution his
parents while he was still young came to England; and for some years he
prosecuted his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden,
where he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history
at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the _formula concordiae_
he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 he taught at
Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where in 1602 he was
appointed librarian to the university. He died at Heidelberg on the 20th
of September 1627.
Gruter's chief works were his _Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis
Romani_ (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and _Lampas, sive fax artium
liberalium_ (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634).
GRUYERE (Ger. _Greyerz_), a district in the south-eastern portion of the
Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle and its cheese, and the
original home of the "Ranz des Vaches," the melody by which the herdsmen
call their cows home at milking time. It is composed of the middle reach
(from Montbovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its
tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the Treme
(left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it contained 17,364
cattle). It forms an administrative district of the canton of Fribourg,
its population in 1900 being 23,111, mainly French-speaking and
Romanists. From Montbovon (11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain
railways leading S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the
Sarine valley past Chateau d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), and by a
tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez on the Lake of
Thun. The modern capital of the district is the small town of Bulle
[Ger. _Boll_], with a 13th-century castle and in 1900 3330 inhabitants,
French-speaking and Romanists. But the historical capital is the very
picturesque little town of _Gruyeres_ (which keeps its final "s" in
order to distinguish it from the district), perched on a steep hill
(S.E. of Bulle) above the left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of
2713 ft. above the sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage
road, and boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the
solitary street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.
The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyere, who are first
mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the word _gruyer_,
meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the counts bore the
canting arms of a crane (_grue_), which are seen all over the castle and
the town. That valiant family ended (in the legitimate line) with Count
Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness
compelled him in 1555 to sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern
took the upper Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in
1798 lost the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du Leman, which in 1803
became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the county, which
it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from the bishop of
Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun or Jogne valley
(bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to form the present
administrative district of Gruyere, which is not co-extensive with the
historical county of that name.
See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in
successive vols. of the _Memoires et documents de la suisse romande
... introa. a l'hist._ (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and
Monuments de l'histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten,
_Briefe uber ein schweiz. Hirtenland_ (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J.
Reichlen, _La Gruyere illustree_ (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, _La Gruyere_
(1867); and _Les Alpes fribourgeoises_, by many authors (Lausanne,
1908). (W. A. B. C.)
GRYNAEUS (or GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), Swiss Protestant divine,
was born on the 1st of October 1540 at Bern. His father, Thomas
(1512-1564), was for a time professor of ancient languages at Basel and
Bern, but afterwards became pastor of Roteln in Baden. He was nephew of
the more eminent Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel,
and in 1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he
proceeded to Tubingen for the purpose of completing his theological
studies, and in 1565 he returned to Roteln as successor to his father.
Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's
Supper, and to renounce the _formula concordiae_. Called in 1575 to the
chair of Old Testament exegesis at Basel, he became involved in
unpleasant controversy with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran
orthodoxy; and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in
the restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel in
1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as _antistes_ or superintendent of the
church there and as professor of the New Testament, he exerted for
upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence upon both the
church and the state affairs of that community, and acquired a wide
reputation as a skilful theologian of the school of Ulrich Zwingli.
Amongst other labours he helped to reorganize the gymnasium in 1588.
Five years before his death he became totally blind, but continued to
preach and lecture till his death on the 13th of August 1617.
His many works include commentaries on various books of the Old and
New Testament, _Theologica theoremata el problemata_ (1588), and a
collection of patristic literature entitled _Monumenta S. patrum
orthodoxographa_ (2 vols., fol., 1569).
GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian of the
Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, was born in 1493 at
Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus
from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with
Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna,
distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His appointment
as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; his views
excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he was thrown into prison.
Gaining his freedom at the instance of Hungarian magnates, he visited
Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the
university of Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from
1526. His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with
his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with
Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus had just
left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies,
and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries. A commendatory
letter from Erasmus gained him the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He
returned to Basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of
continental reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.'s divorce, and was
present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, while
holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary professor of
theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New Testament. In 1534
Duke Ulrich called him to Wurttemberg in aid of the reformation there,
as well as for the reconstitution of the university of Tubingen, which
he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years
later he had an active hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession
(the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the
conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord
(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and Protestants
he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being deputed by
the authorities of Basel. He was carried off suddenly in his prime by
the plague at Basel on the 1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a
mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his
influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among
his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch,
Aristotle and Chrysostom.
His son SAMUEL (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His
nephew THOMAS (1512?-1564) was professor at Basel and minister in Baden,
and left four distinguished sons of whom JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617) was a
leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct
descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake SIMON (1725-1799),
translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and
author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).
See Bayle's _Dictionnaire_; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's
_Realencyklopadie_ (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's _S.
Grynaei epistolae_ (1847). (A. Go.*)
GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and dramatist, was born
on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau in Silesia, where his father
was a clergyman. The family name was Greif, latinized, according to the
prevailing fashion, as Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from
his native town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received
his schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he
enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became tutor to the
sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schonborn (1579-1637), a man of
wide culture and considerable wealth, who, after filling various
administrative posts and writing many erudite volumes on law, had been
rewarded by the emperor Ferdinand II. with the title and office of
imperial count-palatine (_Pfalzgraf_). Schonborn, who recognized
Gryphius's genius, crowned him _poeta laureatus_, gave him the diploma
of master of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility,
though Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of
December 1637, Schonborn died; and next year Gryphius went to continue
his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, both hearing and
delivering lectures. Here he fell under the influence of the great Dutch
dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647) and Joost van den
Vondel (1587-1679), who largely determined the character of his later
dramatic works. After travelling in France, Italy and South Germany,
Gryphius settled in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work,
and in 1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his
death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had been
admitted under the title of "The Immortal" into the _Fruchtbringende
Gesellschaft_, a literary society, founded in 1617 by Ludwig, prince of
Anhalt-Kothen on the model of the Italian academies.
Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy
temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, is largely
reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the
_Kirchhofsgedanken_ (1656). His best works are his comedies, one of
which, _Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz_ (1663), is evidently
based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe in _The Midsummer
Night's Dream_. _Die geliebte Dornrose_ (1660), which is written in a
Silesian dialect, contains many touches of natural simplicity and grace,
and ranks high among the comparatively small number of German dramas of
the 17th century. _Horribilicribrifax_ (1663), founded on the _Miles
gloriosus_ of Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides
these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of them his
tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he had the merit of at
least attempting to work out artistically conceived plans, and there are
occasional flashes both of passion and of imagination. His models seem
to have been Seneca and Vondel. He had the courage, in _Carolus
Stuardus_ (1649) to deal with events of his own day; his other tragedies
are _Leo Armenius_ (1646); _Katharina von Georgien_ (1657), _Cardenio
und Celinde_ (1657) and _Papinianus_ (1663). No German dramatic writer
before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy successors
until about the middle of the 18th century.
A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has been
published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische
Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will be
found in W. Muller's _Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten
Jahrhunderts_ (1822) and in J. Tittmann's _Deutsche Dichter des 17ten
Jahrhunderts_ (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in
Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_.
See O. Klopp, _Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker_ (1851); J. Hermann,
_Uber Andreas Gryphius_ (1851); T. Wissowa, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis von
Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften_ (1876); J. Wysocki, _Andreas
Gryphius et la tragedie allemande au XVII^e siecle_; and V.
Mannheimer, _Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius_ (1904).
GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying one that cries,
moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American name of what English
writers call the oil-bird, the _Steatornis caripensis_ of
ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described by Alexander von
Humboldt (_Voy. aux reg. equinoxiales_ i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119;
_Obs. Zoologie_ ii. 141, pl. xliv.) from his own observation and from
examples obtained by Aime J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two
travellers, in September 1799, to a cave near Caripe (at that time a
monastery of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumana on the
northern coast of South America. A few years later it was discovered,
says Latham (_Gen. Hist. Birds_, 1823, vii. 365), to inhabit Trinidad,
where it appears to bear the name of _Diablotin_;[1] but by the receipt
of specimens procured at Sarayacu in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian
Andes, and Antioquia in Colombia (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878, pp. 139,
140; 1879, p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had
been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious habits, and
its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little
attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus
_Caprimulgus_, its original describer soon saw that it was no true
goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily, and
has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct family,
_Steatornithidae_--a view which, though not put forth till 1870 (_Zool.
Record_, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed correct. Its
systematic position, however, can scarcely be considered settled, for
though on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the
_Caprimulgidae_, nearly as much affinity may be traced to the
_Strigidae_, while it possesses some characters in which it differs from
both (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1873, pp. 526-535). About as big as a crow,
its plumage exhibits the blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey,
barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places
with white, that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is
hard, strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the
gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs and toes
are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In habits the
guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns
which it frequents in vast numbers. Towards evening it arouses itself,
and, with croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of
castanets, it approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it
issues in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists
entirely of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera
_Achras_, _Aiphanas_, _Laurus_ and _Psichotria_, some of them sought, it
would seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (_Bull. Acad. Sc.
Bruxelles_ xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he
obtained at Caripe he found the seed of a tree which he believed did not
grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible seed swallowed by
the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the ledges of the
caverns it frequents, where many of them for a time vegetate, the plants
thus growing being etiolated from want of light, and, according to
travellers, forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these
places present. The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay,
in which it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but
lustreless surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after
they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in the nest
are sought by the Indians, who at Caripe, and perhaps elsewhere, make a
special business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain.
This is done about midsummer, when by the aid of torches and long poles
many thousands of the young birds are slaughtered, while their parents
in alarm and rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and
deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern's
mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use in cooking as well
as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be pure and limpid, free
from any disagreeable taste or smell, and capable of being kept for a
year without turning rancid. In Trinidad the young are esteemed s great
delicacy for the table by many, though some persons object to their
peculiar scent, which resembles that of a cockroach (_Blatta_), and
consequently refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C.
Taylor (_Ibis_, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But one
species of the genus _Steatornis_ is known.
In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about this
curious bird may be found under the following references: L'Herminier,
_Ann. Sc. Nat._ (1836), p. 60, and _Nouv. Ann. Mus._ (1838), p. 321;
Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Muller, _Monatsb. Berl.
Acad._ (1841), p. 172, and _Archiv fur Anat._ (1862), pp. 1-11; des
Murs, _Rev. zool._ (1843), p. 32, and _Ool. Orn._ pp. 260-263;
Blanchard, _Ann. Mus._ (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; Konig-Warthausen,
_Journ. fur Orn._ (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, _Vargasia_ (1869), pp.
124-128; Murie, _Ibis_ (1873), pp. 81-86. (A. N.)