THE HELLENISTIC AGE
I. THE EXTENT OF GREEK INFLUENCE
Alexander was a great conqueror and he won for himself a mighty
empire. But that empire did not last, for his successors were unable
to hold it together. It would almost seem as if he had crowded into
his short reign of barely thirteen years, hero deeds and marvellous
exploits, which however much they may have done to enrich tradition
and to appeal to the imagination, were hardly of any great permanent
value. Alexander, however, did more than create a passing empire; he
did more than any other one man to spread the knowledge of Greek
civilization over the world. Wherever he passed with his conquering
army he founded cities, where he established colonies of Greeks: men
who spoke the Greek tongue, who worshipped the Greek gods, who read
and loved Greek literature, and who lived according to Greek ideals.
Such cities were founded in Egypt, in Asia Minor, in Syria, in
Babylonia, in Persia and even in the distant lands till then unknown,
further to the mysterious East.
{399}
But Alexander did yet more to spread Greek civilization than by the
founding of cities. All the great ports of the Eastern Mediterranean
were in his hands, which meant that Greek merchants were established
there, and that the whole commerce of that region was in the hand of
Greeks.
The history of Greek civilization may be divided into two periods.
The first lasted until the days of Alexander; it included the early
experiments made by Greek states in the art of governing themselves,
the repulse of the Barbarian, the great days of Athens, the
disastrous Peloponnesian War. Through all this period Greece was
learning how to do things. She was in the making and was creating
what was to live as long as men should love what was great, but she
was living for herself. This period is called the _Hellenic Period_.
Beginning with Alexander, Greek civilization stepped out into a new
age. Greece was no longer living for herself, she was living for the
world. Greek civilization had been far-flung over Asia; the
Barbarian was adopting Greek customs, Greece was the teacher of the
world, in science, in art, and in all that was meant by civilized
living. This period lasted from the time of Alexander until Greece
became part of the Roman Empire in 146 B.C., and is known as the
_Hellenistic Age_. The centre of Greek civilization was now no
longer in Athens, but in Alexandria, the city in Egypt founded by
Alexander, and which from its situation was the natural link between
the East and the West.
{400}
II. ALEXANDRIA
Alexandria had not been founded for very many years before she was
the rival of Carthage, that powerful commercial city founded by the
Phoenicians, as mistress of the Mediterranean, and in the Eastern
Mediterranean, known as the Levant, she held undisputed sway. From
that time to the present day Alexandria has been the door through
which the commerce of the East and the West has passed.
In the Hellenistic Age, Alexandria developed into a very beautiful
city. Temples and all kinds of public buildings, great palaces and
gardens, docks and warehouses were built. At the entrance to the
harbour stood a great lighthouse, called the Pharos from the island
on which it stood, and which was considered so great a marvel that it
was numbered amongst the Seven Wonders of the ancient World.
This period was in many ways like a more modern one. Greek
civilization had stepped out into a new world. The conquering armies
of Alexander, going out to the ends of the earth, had made
communication possible between places that had hitherto hardly known
of each other's existence. Science had made such remarkable strides
that man's power over nature had been enormously increased, and the
increase of scientific knowledge was affecting the old religious
beliefs in the gods. Nothing seemed to be quite the same as it had
hitherto been, and then, as at all such times, the minds of {401} men
were affected by the changes. Some became more conservative than
before and wanted nothing changed, because to them the old was
necessarily the best, and there was only evil in what was new.
Others went to the other extreme and wanted everything changed,
because to them the new must necessarily be better than the old. But
quietly in between these two extremes were the thinkers, those who
were keeping alive that Greek spirit which knew that the vision of
the whole truth had not yet been given to any man, and that the way
to progress was not by destroying the old, but by building upon it in
order to go on from a firm foundation to a fuller knowledge of the
truth. Not to Thales, nor to Socrates, nor to Aristotle, nor yet to
the men of the twentieth century has the complete vision of the truth
of all things been vouchsafed, but to those who follow the quest in
the spirit of the Greeks of old is granted to add a little to the
progress of human knowledge.
It was in the Museum at Alexandria that the thinkers worked. This
Museum was founded by Ptolemy Soter, one of the rulers of Egypt after
the break-up of Alexander's empire, and very much developed by his
son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. This Museum, the Temple of the Muses, was
what today would be called a university. It had lecture halls where
mathematicians, astronomers, poets and philosophers taught; courts
and porches where men walked and talked, houses where the men of
learning lived. Above all, it had a Library, which contained several
thousand books. This library was {402} catalogued by Callimachus,
the first librarian of whom there is any record, and there were a
hundred and twenty books of his catalogue. Book, however, is a wrong
word to use for the collection in the Alexandrian Library, for there
were no _books_ then, as we know them. Rolls took the place of
books, and Callimachus soon found that the big rolls were very
inconvenient. It is said that he complained that "a big book is a
big nuisance," and that it was when he was librarian that the plan of
dividing the large rolls into a number of smaller ones was thought
of. These were easier to handle, but one work required a great many
of the smaller rolls, and thirty-six were required for the Iliad and
the Odyssey.
As the fame of the Library spread, students from all over the Greek
world came to Alexandria, and there was a great demand for additional
copies of the works in the Library. For more than three centuries,
Alexandria was the great book-producing mart in the world. The
Museum possessed a good collection of the best known copies of the
works of the classic writers, and Ptolemy Philadelphus very much
enlarged this collection. He bought every copy of all existing Greek
works he could find, and as he paid very high prices for them, there
was a steady flow of books to Alexandria from all over the civilized
world. It is said that he refused to send food to the Athenians at a
time of famine unless they agreed to give him certain copies they
still possessed of the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.
He paid liberally for them, not {403} only in the promised shipment
of corn but also in silver.
As more and more copies of the classic writers were wanted, a regular
publishing trade arose in Alexandria. Callimachus was not only the
Librarian of the Library, but a publisher of the works of classic
writers. Large numbers of copyists were employed whose business it
was to make careful and accurate copies of the works required. This
accounts for the fact that in certain works of ancient literature it
is sometimes difficult to know what is the really original form of
certain lines or passages, because in spite of their care, the
copyists made mistakes, and unfortunately many original copies of the
classics were lost in the great fire which destroyed the Library in
the last century B.C. The Alexandrian school of copyists was a very
famous one, and Alexandrian Editions of the classics were considered
the very best to be had.
Not only were Greek works copied, but other literature was translated
into Greek and then copied. It was in Alexandria that the oldest
manuscript of the Old Testament we possess was transcribed. It was a
translation of the whole of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek,
made, according to tradition, by a group of seventy Jewish scholars,
whence comes its name, the Septuagint. These scholars were
encouraged to undertake this work by the King, who is said to have
provided the means for their support whilst they were engaged on the
translation, and who gave them a special quarter of the city in which
to live.
{404}
III. SCIENCE IN THE HELLENISTIC AGE
Greek science had been born in Ionia, and during the Hellenic Period
of Greek civilization, it had gone hand in hand with philosophy. The
earliest days of pure science came in the Hellenistic Age, and its
home was in Alexandria. Amongst the many names of men of this time
who contributed something of value to science, there are two which
must be remembered: those of Euclid and Archimedes.
Euclid lived in Alexandria. He was a mathematician and wrote a great
work on geometry. No scientific work in the world has lived in quite
the same way as has this book of Euclid, for since the time that the
Elements of Euclid were written, it was used as a school text book
without interruption until a very few years ago.
Archimedes was probably the greatest of the Greek scientific thinkers
of the third century B.C. He did not live in Alexandria; he was a
native of Syracuse in Sicily, but he was in close touch with all the
scientific work that was being done there. He was a great scientific
investigator, the inventor of many practical and ingenious devices
and discovered the principle of moving heavy bodies by means of
pulleys and levers. An extraordinarily large ship was made for the
King of Syracuse, a ship of marvel to that age. It contained a
gymnasium, gardens of most wonderful beauty and full of rich plants,
a temple to Aphrodite, a drawing-room with its walls and doors of
boxwood, having a bookcase in it, a bath-room with three brazen
vessels for {405} holding hot water, and a fish-pond. All the
furnishings were of the most exquisite craftsmanship, and all the
rooms had floors of mosaic, in which the whole story of the Iliad was
depicted in a most marvellous manner. There were doors of ivory,
beautiful couches, and it was full of pictures and statues, goblets
and vases of every form and shape imaginable. But the ship was so
large that no one could move it. Archimedes, however, we are told,
launched it by himself with the aid of only a few people. For having
prepared a helix (probably some mechanical contrivance with pulleys),
he drew this vessel, enormous as it was, down to the sea. And it was
said that Archimedes was the first person who ever invented this
helix.[1]
Archimedes believed it possible to move greater bodies even than the
ship, and he is said to have boasted: "Give me a place to stand on,
and I will move the earth."
This great inventor did other things which struck the imagination of
the men amongst whom he lived, for of some of them they had never
seen the like before. During the siege of Syracuse by the Romans, in
212 B.C., Archimedes invented marvellous war-engines: strange
grappling hooks which, it was said, could seize an enemy's ship and
overturn it in the sea, and he showed the Syracusans how to set up a
water pump in their ships, so that should water get into the hold, it
could be pumped out and the ship saved from sinking. He is also said
to have made some arrangement of mirrors and burning {406} glass by
means of which the Roman ships were set on fire. But in spite of all
these inventions, the Romans took the city, and Archimedes was
killed. He was found by a Roman soldier, sitting in his house and
paying no heed to any danger, but intent on drawing mathematical
diagrams on the ground. Looking up and seeing the enemy, all he said
was: "Stand away, fellow, from my diagram." The soldier, not knowing
who he was, killed him.
IV. THE END OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE AND THE POWER FROM THE WEST
It is said that on his deathbed Alexander bequeathed his empire "to
the strongest," but there was no one general able enough or strong
enough to succeed him, and for about fifty years after his death, his
empire was torn by strife and bloodshed. At last some kind of peace
and order was restored, but the one great empire of Alexander had
disappeared, and the civilized world was broken up into a number of
independent states, of which the most important were the Kingdoms of
Syria, Egypt and Macedonia. During the long wars which had preceded
this settlement, many battles had been fought on Greek soil. The
Greeks were not strong enough to prevent this and neither were they
able to maintain their independence when Macedonia became a kingdom.
She was too powerful and strong a neighbour and Greece fell under her
rule. Tyrants were established in the Greek cities, a deep
humiliation to the freedom-loving Greek.
{407}
But once more the old Greek spirit flared up and the tyrants were
driven out. From time to time in the history of Greece, states had
joined together in various leagues and alliances, but the inability
of the Greeks to combine for long, even when their very life demanded
it, had prevented such leagues from lasting any great length of time.
But in 281 B.C. when once again the independence of Greece was
threatened, one of these old leagues was revived, the Achaean League.
It lasted for nearly a century and is of the greatest interest to
modern times, for until the union of the American states, about two
thousand years later, there was nothing in the history of the world
like it again.
The Achaean League was not an alliance, but a real federation of
states, with one central government. Each separate state kept its
own sovereign rights over all its domestic affairs, but questions of
war and peace, the support of the army, and all relations with
foreign states were controlled by the federal government. It was the
only experiment in ancient times of real federal government.
The head of the League was called the General, and it was under the
general Aratus that it became very powerful. Almost all the more
important of the Greek states entered the League, with the exception
of Athens and Sparta. Neither by persuasion, nor by force, unless
she might be recognized as head of the League, would Sparta consent
to become a member, and so powerful was she in the Peloponnesus that
Aratus begged the aid of Macedonia to subdue her. Sparta was
conquered, but Macedonia {408} regained her supremacy in Greece, and
the power of the Achaean League was broken.
The old Greece of history no longer existed. Greek civilization had
spread over the Mediterranean world, but the free and independent
city-state had disappeared and nothing lasting had taken its place.
Alexander himself, and still more his successors, had failed to
create an empire which gave to those who belonged to it any sense of
citizenship in it. The Hellenistic world was a Greek civilization,
but it failed to arouse in men of Greek birth that patriotism which
the city-state had inspired.
The creation of a world state of which men were to be proud to call
themselves citizens and for which they would gladly die, was to be
the work of another great power, which even as the old Greece was
passing, was growing strong in the West. Rome was steadily
conquering the civilized world. Already she ruled over Italy and was
extending her power over the Eastern Mediterranean. She conquered
Macedonia, and one by one the old free states of Greece and those of
the Achaean League lost their independence, until in 146 B.C.
Corinth, rich, commercial, gay Corinth, was taken by Rome, and Greece
became a Roman province. The citizens of this great state, which was
to include, not only Greece and the Levant, but the whole
Mediterranean and lands far beyond its shores, were to be proud of
the name of Roman. Yet Rome, destined to be the Mistress of the
World, and in political power an empire, succeeding where Greece
{409} had failed, owed all that was most worth while in the things of
the higher intellectual life of the mind to Greece. The Greek spirit
was never to die.
[1] From _Athenaeus_.
{410}
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT BOOKS FOR FURTHER READING
This book has been intended for those who were reading about Greece
for the first time. The following list is for those _older_ readers
of the book who would like to know more about this great
civilization. It only contains suggestions as to how to _begin_, and
is therefore not in any way a complete bibliography.
I. _Books about Greece_
GROTE. _History of Greece_. This book was written some time ago,
but it is still the most famous history of Greece.
C. H. and H. B. HAWES. _Crete the Forerunner of Greece_.
BAIKIE. _The Sea Kings of Crete_.
R. W. LIVINGSTONE. The Greek Genius and its Meaning to Us.
R. W. LIVINGSTONE. (Edited by) _The Pageant of Greece_.
R. W. LIVINGSTONE. (Edited by) _The Legacy of Greece_.
GILBERT MURRAY. _The Rise of the Greek Epic_.
A. E. ZIMMERN. _The Greek Commonwealth_.
E. N. GARDINER. _Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals_.
ETHEL B. ABRAHAMS. _Greek Dress_.
EMILY JAMES PUTNAM. _The Lady_.
{411}
E. POTTIER. _Douris and the Painters of Greek Vases_.
G. M. A. RICHTER. _The Craft of Athenian Pottery_.
G. M. A. RICHTER. _Handbook to the Classical Collection in the
Metropolitan Museum, New York_. An excellent introduction to the
study of Greek Art.
KENNETH J. FREEMAN. _The Schools of Hellas_.
A. E. HAIGH. _The Attic Theatre_.
E. A. GARDNER. _A Handbook of Greek Sculpture_.
D. G. HOGARTH. _Philip and Alexander_.
PUTNAM. _Authors and their Public in Ancient Times_.
MAHAFFY. _Social Life in Greece_.
MAHAFFY. _Alexander's Empire_.
II. _Greek Writers_
No reading _about_ Greece can take the place of reading what the
Greeks themselves wrote. References to Greek writers will have been
found all through this book and in the list of acknowledgments at the
beginning. The following list of the more important writers and
their works referred to in this book has been put together for the
purpose of easier reference.
HOMER. _The Iliad_, translated by Lang, Leaf and Myers.
HOMER. _The Odyssey_, translated by Butcher and Lang.
HOMER. _The Homeric Hymns_, translated by Andrew Lang.
{412}
AESCHYLUS. Translated by A. S. Way and also by E. M. Cookson.
AESCHYLUS. _The Agamemnon_, translated by Gilbert Murray.
SOPHOCLES. Translated by R. C. Jebb.
SOPHOCLES. _Oedipus, King of Thebes_, translated by Gilbert Murray.
EURIPIDES. Translated by Gilbert Murray.
ARISTOPHANES. Translated by B. B. Rogers.
_The Frogs_, translated by Gilbert Murray.
PLATO. Translated by Benjamin Jowett.
PLATO. _The Republic_, translated by Davies and Vaughan.
PLATO. _Trial and Death of Socrates_, translated by F. J. Church.
ARISTOTLE. _Politics_, translated by Benjamin Jowett and also by J.
E. C. Welldon.
HERODOTUS. Translated by G. C. Macaulay.
THUCYDIDES. Translated by Benjamin Jowett.
XENOPHON. Translated by H. G. Dakyns.
PLUTARCH. Translated by Dryden, revised by A. H. Clough.
DEMOSTHENES. _Public Orations_, translated by A. W.
Pickard-Cambridge.
_The Claim of Antiquity_, an excellent pamphlet published by the
Oxford University Press, gives a much fuller and more complete list
of books and translations for those who would like further
suggestions.
III. _Greek Sculpture and Architecture_
Not every one can go to Greece or even to Sicily, but most museums
have good collections of casts and {413} models. Greek sculpture is
not all found in one place, but scattered through the museums of the
world. Those who can go to London, Paris, Rome and Naples, if
nowhere else, can get first-hand knowledge of some of the greatest
things the Greeks produced. For the sculptures from the Parthenon
are in the _British Museum_; most beautiful things are in the _Museo
delle Terme_ in _Rome_ (to see the other half of the Throne of
Aphrodite one must go to the _Museum of Fine Arts in Boston,
Massachusetts_), and Sophocles is in the _Museum of the Lateran_.
From Naples one can go to _Paestum_, once the Greek colony of
Poseidonia, famous in ancient times for its roses, and see the Temple
of Poseidon. It has never been restored, and is one of the best
preserved Greek temples to be seen anywhere out of Attica. There it
stands, as it has stood for over two thousand years, looking out
towards the sea, solitary, now, and desolate, yet in its loneliness
most beautiful.
All these things are merely suggestions as to one way of beginning.
Those who begin will find no difficulty in going on.
{415}
INDEX
A
Academy, 194, 211, 381
Achaean League, 407
Acropolis, 91, 190, 194; temples on, 278 ff.; later history of 284 ff.
Aegean civilization, 5
Aeschylus, 107, 163, 390, 395, 402, 412
Aethiopians, 44
_Agamemnon_ of Aeschylus, 391, 395, 412
Agamemnon, Tomb of, 6, 25, 26
Agora, 191, 207
Alaric the Goth, 284
_Alcestis_ of Euripides, 393, 412
Alcibiades; early life of, 302 ff.; Sicilian expedition, 305 ff.;
summoned to Athens, 309; the traitor, 310 ff.; recalled to Athens,
314; exiled, 315
Alcmaeonids, 104
Alexander; youth and education, 342 ff.; policy, 345; conquests of
347 ff.; death of, 356; empire of, 398, 406
Alexandria, 400 ff.; Museum at, 401; Library, 401; book-publishing
in, 402; science in 404 ff.
Alexandrian editions, 403
Amphipolis, 301
Amphora, 203
_Anabasis_ of Xenophon, 318, 320, 412
Anaximander, 112
_Antigone_ of Sophocles, 392, 412
Aphrodite, 51
Apollo, 48, 52, 53
_Apology of Socrates_, 371, 373, 374
Aratus, 407
Archimedes, 404
Architecture, 277 ff.
Archon, 94
Ariadne, 7
Aristeides; character of, 156; rivalry with Themistocles, 156;
ostracism of, 158; return of, 162; forms Delian League, 180
Aristophanes; comedies of, 209, 300, 393, 412
Aristotle; _Politics_ of, 72, 384, 412; views on education, 227, 384;
tutor to Alexander the Great, 344; at the Lyceum, 383; will of, 383;
"Father of Natural Science," 383
Artaxerxes, 317
Artemis, 49, 217
Artemisium, 149
Athena, 47, 48, 50; birth of, 280; contest with Poseidon, 92, 281;
symbol of Athens, 283
Athenian Dress, 195 ff.
Athenian Education, 221 ff.
Athenian Government; rule of one man, 91 ff.; oligarchy, rule of the
few, 94 ff.; rule of the many, 96 ff.
Athenian House, 198
Athenian Life, 190 ff.
Athenian Pottery, 203 ff.
Athenian Trade, 201
Athens; situation and appearance, 190 ff.; classes of people, 194;
burnt by Xerxes, 161; burnt by Mardonius, 168; during Persian War,
144; Long Walls, 173, 298; fortifications of, 172; becomes an empire,
183; enemies of, 291 ff.; during Peloponnesian War, 296 ff.; downfall
of, 315
Athos, Mount, 126
Arrian, 334, 349, 351, 353
Assembly; Spartan, 79; Athenian, 210, 299
B
_Banquet_ of Xenophon, 225, 412
Bema, 210
Brasidas, 301
Byzantium, 110, 175
C
Cadmus, 324
Callimachus, 403
Caryatid, 280
Cecrops, 91
Cerameicus, 204
Chaeronea, 332
Chios, 112, 125, 202
Chiton, 195
Chlamys, 196
Cimon, 93
Citizenship, Greek ideals of, 73 ff.
City-State, 70 ff.
Cleon, 301
Clio, 49
_Clouds_ of Aristophanes, 300, 412
Colonies, 108 ff.; Ionian, 110 ff.; in Italy, 113; in Sicily, 113; in
Egypt, 113
_Constitution of the Lacedaemonians_ of Xenophon, 88
Corinth; council at, 145; urges Sparta to make war on Athens, 291;
fall of, 408
Crete, 6 ff.; legends of, 7 ff.; dress, 11; writing, 15; religion,
13; life in, 16 ff.; amusements, 18
Crito, 374
Croesus, 100 ff.; conquers Ionian colonies, 115; war with Cyrus, 116
Cunaxa, 319
Cylon, 103
Cyrus the Great, 115; conquers Sardis, 116; conquers Ionian colonies,
117
Cyrus the Younger, 318 ff.
D
Daedalus, 8
Darius, 118 ff.; Scythian expedition of, 118 ff.; determines to
invade Greece, 124, 126
Delos, 128; Confederacy of, 180
Delphi, 43; oracle at, 57 ff.; Treasury of Athenians at, 134
Demeter, 54 ff.
Demosthenes, 335 ff.; 412
Deucalion, 42
Diogenes, 346
Dionysus, 232
Dodona, 57
Dorians, 75
Draco, 98
Drama, 233
Dramatists; Aeschylus, 390; Aristophanes, 393; Euripides, 392;
Sophocles, 392
Dress; Athenian, 195; Cretan, 11; Homeric, 28
E
_Economist_ of Xenophon, 198, 215, 216, 412
Education; Athenian, 221 ff.; Spartan, 84 ff.
_Electra_ of Euripides, 393, 412
Eleusis, 54, 220
Elysian Fields, 44
Empire; Athenian, 183, 282; Alexander's, 398, 406
Epaminondas, 325 ff.
Ephors, 80
Erechtheum, 279
Eretria; joins Ionian revolt, 123; burnt by Persians, 128
Euclid, 404
Euripides, 39, 109, 226, 234, 238, 300, 392 ff., 402, 412
Evans, Sir Arthur, 12
F
_Funeral Speech_, 187
G
Games; Isthmian, 61; Olympic, 60 ff.; Pythian, 61
Gordian Knot, 347
Greece; divisions of, 37; trees of, 37; products of, 38; climate of,
39
Greek Art, 394 ff.
Greek Characteristics, 40
Greek Spirit, 102, 358
H
Hades, 54 ff.
Hecataeus, 112
Hellenic Period, 399
_Hellenica_ of Xenophon, 315,316, 327, 412
Hellespont, 141
Hellenistic Age, 398 ff.
Helots, 76
Hephaestus, 50
Hera, 47
Hermes, 49, 106
_Hermes_ of Praxiteles, 222, 395
Herodas, translation from Mime III, 228 ff.
Herodotus, 39, 78, 111, 115, 117, 118 ff., 136 ff., 174, 282, 385
ff., 412
Hestia, 51, 52, 199
Himation, 196
Hipparchus, 106
Hippias, 106, 128
_Hippolytus_ of Euripides, 234, 412
Historians; Herodotus, 385 ff.; Plutarch, 389; Thucydides, 386 ff.;
Xenophon, 388
Homer, 22, 58, 112, 225, 411
Homeric Age, 27 ff.; dress, 28; palaces, 28 ff.; furniture, 30 ff.
_Homeric Hymns_, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 58, 281, 411
Houses; Athenian, 198 ff.; Cretan, 16; Homeric, 28
Hydria, 203
Hyperboreans, 43
I
_Iliad_, 6, 8, 19, 20, 22, 46, 68, 106, 402, 411
Ionian Colonies, 110, 202; conquered by Croesus, 115; conquered by
Cyrus, 117; appeal to Athens for help, 174
Ionian Revolt, 122
_Iphigenia in Tauris_ of Euripides, 238 ff.; 393, 412
Isthmian Games, 61
K
King's Peace, 317
_Knights_ of Aristophanes, 300, 412
Knossos, 8; palace of, 10; destruction of, 20
Krater, 203
L
Lacedaemonians, 75
Laconia, 75
Lade, 124
Laurium, 156
Lawgivers; Draco, 98; Lycurgus, 76 ff.; Solon, 96 ff.
Lekythos, 203
Leonidas, 148
Lesbos, 112
Leuctra, 327
Long Walls, 173, 298, 316
Lyceum, 383
Lycurgus, 76 ff.; travels of, 77; at Delphi, 78; government of, 76
ff.; death of, 90
Lydia, 114
M
Macedonians, 329
Magna Graecia, 113
Mantinea, 327
Map-makers, 112
Marathon, 130 ff.
Mardonius, 125, 137, 166, 168
Mediterranean, 3 ff.
_Memorabilia_ of Xenophon, 278, 373
Metopes, 282
Minoan Civilization, 8
Minos, 7
Miletus, 111, 202; siege of by Lydia, 114; revolt against Darius,
122; fall of, 124
Militiades, 131
Muses, 49
Music, 227
Mycenae, 25 ff.; 32
Mycenaean Civilization, 5
N
Naucratis, 113
Naxos, 122, 127
Nicias, 302
O
_Odyssey_, 7, 8, 19, 22, 29, 30, 50, 402, 411
_Oedipus at Colonus_ of Sophocles, 392, 412
_Oedipus the King_ of Sophocles, 392, 412
Oligarchy, 94
Olympia; oracle at, 57; statue of Zeus at, 64
Olympic Games, 60 ff.
Olympus, 43, 46
Oracle; origin of, 56; oracles of Zeus, 57; of Apollo, 57
Oracles; about Homer, 58; given to Lycurgus, 78; to Cylon, 103; to
Spartans, 107; "deceitful answer" to Croesus, 115; of the wooden
walls, 159
Orations; _Funeral Speech_ of Pericles, 187 ff.; of Demosthenes, from
_Third Philippic_, 338; from _Second Olynthiac_, 339; _On the Crown_,
339 ff.
Ostracism, 157
P
Palaestra, 227
Pan, 51, 129, 134
Panathenaic Festival, 204, 217, 283
Parnassus, 42, 49
Parthenon, 280 ff.
Pausanias, Spartan General; at Plataea, 168 ff.; at Byzantium, 175;
suspicious conduct of, 175; death of, 176
Pausanias the Traveller, 25, 64, 69
Pedagogue, 223
Pediment, 277
Peiraeus, 173, 202
Peisistratus, 104 ff.
Pelopidas, 326
Peloponnesian War; causes, 291 ff.; course of war, 296 ff.; Sicilian
Expedition, 305 ff.; defeat of Athens, 315 ff.
Pentathlon, 67
Pericles, 53; early life of, 183; leader of Athens, 185; _Funeral
Speech_ of, 187 ff.; beautifies Athens, 289; policy during
Peloponnesian War, 297; death of, 298; imperial policy of, 298 ff.
Persephone, 54 ff.
_Persians_ of Aeschylus, 163, 412
Persian Wars, 118 ff.; invasion under Mardonius, 125; Marathon, 125
ff.; invasion under Xerxes, 136 ff.; Thermopylae, 148 ff.; Salamis,
161 ff.
_Phaedo_ of Plato, 375, 377
_Phaedrus_ of Plato, 382, 412
Pheidias, 46, 64, 279, 395
Pheidippides, 129, 132
Philip of Macedon, 328; King of Macedonia, 330; policy of, 330;
conflict with Greek states, 331 ff.; destroys Thebes, 332; death of,
333
_Philippics_ of Demosthenes, 338, 412
Philosophers; Aristotle, 72, 227, 383 ff., 412; Plato, 380 ff., 412;
Pythagoras, 379; Socrates, 361 ff; Thales, 111, 379
Philosophy, Greek, 378
Pindar, 69, 323
Plague in Athens, 297
Plataea; aids Athens before Marathon, 131; battle of, 168
Plato, 57, 194, 225, 226, 228, 363, 367, 371, 373, 374, 375, 377, 380
ff., 412
Plutarch, 75, 90, 93, 96, 154, 156, 158, 172, 177, 178, 180, 181,
185, 186, 284, 298, 304, 309, 310, 314, 336, 337, 345, 346, 389, 412
Pnyx, 210
Polemarch, 94
_Politics_ of Aristotle, 72, 384, 412
Poseidon, 47, 92, 281
Praxiteles, 222, 395
Propylaea, 278
_Protagoras_ of Plato, 225, 412
Ptolemy Philadelphia, 401
Ptolemy Soter, 401
Pyrrha, 42
Pythagoras, 379
Pythian Games, 60
R
Religion; Cretan, 13; Greek, 44 ff.
_Republic_ of Plato, 226, 381, 412
S
Sacred Mysteries, 54 ff., 220
Salamis, 97; battle of, 163 ff.
Sappho, 112
Sardis; taken by Cyrus, 116; burnt by Ionians, 123; Persian army at,
138
Schliemann, 23 ff.
Science; in Ionia, 111; in Alexandria, 404 ff.
Scythia, 118
Senate, Spartan, 78
_Septuagint_, 403
Sicily, 113
Sicilian Expedition, 305 ff.
Socrates, 278, 303, 396; early life, 361 ff.; Socrates and the
Sophists, 364; Socratic method of teaching, 366; accusations against,
368; trial off 368; _Apology_ of, 368 ff.; death of, 374 ff.
Solon; early life of, 96; war over Salamis, 97; Archon, 98; reforms
of, 98 ff.; travels of 100; Solon and Croesus, 100 ff.
Sophists, 364
Sophocles, 392, 395, 402, 412
Sparta; situation of, 75; government of, 76 ff.; customs, 81 ff.;
education, 845.; position of women, 89; aids Athens in expelling
Hippias, 107; refusal to join Ionian revolt, 123; refuses immediate
help before Marathon, 129; at Thermopylae, 148 ff.; jealousy of
Athens, 172 ff.; policy towards Ionian colonies, 174; during
Peloponnesian War, 287 ff.; supremacy of, 316
Sphacteria, 301
Statues; _Zeus_ at Olympia, 64; _Hermes_ of Praxiteles, 222; _Athena
Promachos_, 279, 284; _Athena Polias_, 280; _Athena Parthenos_, 283;
_Sophocles_, 413
Stoa, 193
Strabo, 4
Symposium, 213
_Symposium_ of Plato, 363, 367, 412
Syracuse, 113, 226, 405; battle in harbour of, 312
T
Temples, 14, 276 ff.; Athena Nike, 279; Erechtheum, 279; Parthenon,
280 ff.; Paestum, 413
Ten Thousand, March of the, 318
Thales, 111, 379
Theatre, 232 ff.
Thebes, 153, 317; early history of, 322; legends of, 324; supremacy
of, 325 ff.; defeated by Philip of Macedon, 332; destroyed by
Alexander, 346
Themistocles; early life and character, 153; at Artemisium, 150;
builds a navy, 155; rivalry with Aristeides, 156; at Salamis, 161
ff.; popularity of, 171 ff.; fortifies Athens, 172; accusations
against, 176; ostracized, 177; at the Persian court, 177; death of,
178
Theocritus, 216
Therma, 143
Thermopylae, 148 ff.
Theseus, 7, 92, 93; ship of, 9, 374
Thucydides, 7, 155, 181, 189, 297, 302, 308, 309, 314, 360, 386 ff.,
412
Tiryns, 27
Trojan War, 22, 347
_Trojan Women_ of Euripides, 39, 300, 412
Troy, discovery of, 24
Tyrants, 102 ff.; Cylon, 103; Peisistratus, 104 ff.
W
_Wasps_ of Aristophanes, 209, 300, 412
Women, position of; in Athens, 214 ff.; in Sparta, 89
Writing, Cretan, 15
X
Xanthippe, 363
Xenophon, 88, 198, 214, 215, 216, 225, 278, 314, 315, 318, 327, 373,
388, 412
Xerxes, 136 ff.
Z
Zeus, 7, 46, 52, 53, 199, 231