THE GROWTH OF ATHENS
I. EARLIEST ATHENS
Athens was the most beautiful city in Greece. It grew up at the foot
of the high rock known as the Acropolis, which in the earliest times
was the citadel that defended the city. The Acropolis had very
strong walls, and the main entrance was guarded by nine gates, which
must have made it almost impossible for an enemy to take, and there
was a well within the fortress, so that there was always water for
those who defended it. But history has told us almost nothing about
the mighty lords who built this fortress or about the life of the
people over whom they ruled.
But if history is silent, legend has much to say. The earliest
rulers of Athens were Kings, and of these one of the first was
Cecrops. All kinds of stories gathered round his name, and it was
believed that he was not altogether human, but a being who had grown
out of the earth and was half-man and half-serpent. It was when he
was King that the contest took place as to whether Athena, the {92}
grey-eyed Goddess of Wisdom, or Poseidon, Lord of the Sea, should be
the special guardian of the city. The victory was awarded to Athena,
who, taking her spear, thrust it into the ground, whereupon an olive
tree marvellously appeared. Poseidon gave the horse as his gift to
Athens, and legend adds that, striking the rock with his trident, he
brought forth clear salt water, which he also gave to the Athenians.
For all time the olive was associated not only with Athena, but with
Attica and Athens her city, and to the Athenian, the sea became
almost like a second home.
The ancient kings claimed descent from the gods. They were not only
the lawgivers, but they acted as judges, as chief priests, and in
time of war as generals. All who were oppressed had the right to
appeal to the judgment seat of the King and his decisions were final.
Though the King was the supreme ruler, there were assemblies of the
chief men, always called the Elders, and of the People, who met
whenever the King called them together. These gatherings are
important, not because of any real power they possessed in early
times, for they only met to hear what the King intended to do and
never to discuss, but because it was from these assemblies that the
power of the people to govern themselves developed.
The greatest of the early Kings was Theseus, he who slew the Minotaur
and freed Athens from paying tribute to Minos the Sea-King of Crete.
His greatest claim to be held in the remembrance of his countrymen
was that it was believed to have been Theseus {93} who united all
Attica under the leadership of Athens. Before this time all the
towns and villages in Attica had been independent, but he "gathered
together all the inhabitants of Attica into one town, and made them
people of one city ... and gave the name of Athens to the whole
state."[1] Legend tells of him that he was good and merciful to all
who were in need, and a protector of all who were oppressed, but he
offended the gods in some way, and died in exile far from Athens.
Long centuries after, Cimon, an Athenian general, took possession of
the island in which it was said that Theseus had been buried. Cimon
had a great ambition to find out the place where Theseus was
buried and by chance spied an eagle on a rising ground, when on a
sudden it came into his mind, as it were by some divine
inspiration, to dig there, and search for the bones of Theseus.
There were found in that place a coffin of a man of more than
ordinary size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword lying by it,
all of which he took aboard his galley and brought with him to
Athens. Upon which the Athenians, greatly delighted, went out to
meet and receive the relics with splendid processions and with
sacrifices, as if it were Theseus himself returning alive to the
city. His tomb became a sanctuary and refuge for slaves, and of
all those of mean condition that fly from the persecution of men
in power, in memory that Theseus while he lived was an assister
and protector of the distressed, and never refused the petitions
of the afflicted that fled to him.[2]
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II. THE RULE OF THE FEW: THE OLIGARCHY
It is not known with any certainty how long the rule of the Kings
lasted in Athens, but they seem to have slowly lost their power
and at last other magistrates were appointed to help them rule.
The earliest Kings had been hereditary rulers; when they became
less powerful, though they were no longer the sole rulers of
Athens, these hereditary Kings still kept their office for life.
Later they ruled for life but were elected; the next change made
was to elect a new king every ten years, and at last the greatest
change of all took place when the old office of King was done
away with, and the power that had once been in the hands of one
man was entrusted to three: the Archon, a Greek title meaning
_ruler_, who was the chief representative of the State and who
gave his name to the year, the King-Archon, who was the chief
priest and who had authority over all the sacrifices offered by
the State, and the Polemarch, or War-Archon, who was the chief
general. Six other archons were also elected whose duty it was
to assist the others and to see that the laws of the State were
obeyed.
Not everyone could be an Archon; only men from noble families
could be elected, and so the power passed into the hands of a few
men. The rule of a few is called an _oligarchy_, and it was the
second step the Athenians took on their way to be a
self-governing community.
At first this rule was good, for by experience the nobles learnt
a great deal about the art of governing; {95} they realised that
order was better than disorder in a state, and they set high
standards of devotion to public duty. But the nobles all
belonged to one class of people, they were the best educated and
the more wealthy, and instead of using their advantages of
position and education and wealth as a trust for the good of the
whole state (the ideal developed in later years by the
Athenians), they grew to consider these things their own
exclusive property and they became very narrow and intolerant.
They considered themselves in every way superior to the common
people, and began to make laws which benefited themselves alone,
ignoring the rights of others, especially those of the poor.
Now the nobles had acquired their power because of their
opposition to the rule of one man, but when the authority had
been placed in their hands, they proved themselves equally unable
to be just towards all, and their rule became as intolerant as
that of the Kings. Then it was that their authority was
questioned in its turn, and the people began to ask each other
questions. What is the difference, they asked, between rich and
poor, between the noble and the plain man, between the freeman
and the slave? Who, they asked, are citizens, and what does it
mean to be a citizen? The more the people questioned, the
greater grew the oppression and injustice of the nobles, and
conditions in Athens grew very bad. Many things helped to create
this spirit of discontent: there had been wars, the harvests had
been bad and famine had resulted, and there were very harsh laws
which allowed debtors who could not pay their {96} debts to sell
themselves as slaves. Quarrels arose, and more and more the
people questioned as to the justice of all this. They said:
But ye who have store of land, who are sated and overflow,
Restrain your swelling soul, and still it and keep it low;
Let the heart that is great within you be trained a lowlier way;
Ye shall not have all at your will, we will not forever obey.[3]
III. SOLON, THE WISE MAN OF ATHENS AND THE RULE OF THE MANY[4]
It was at this time of confusion and distress that Solon, one of
the Seven Wise Men of Greece, appeared. By birth he was a noble,
but he was a poor man and in the early part of his life he had
been a merchant. There came a time later when the merchant was
not looked upon as the equal of the noble, for Plutarch, in
writing the life of Solon about seven hundred years after his
death, makes an apology for his having been engaged in trade.
In his time, as Hesiod says, "Work was a shame to none," nor was
any distinction made with respect to trade, but merchandise was a
noble calling, which brought home the good things which the
barbarous {97} nations enjoyed, was the occasion of friendship
with their kings, and a great source of experience.
Solon enjoyed the experience of travelling and seeing new things, a
delight that remained with him even to the days of his old age, for
when he was old he would say that he
Each day grew older, and learnt something new.
Just before this time Athens had been at war with Megara, a
neighbouring state, over the possession of Salamis, which had
formerly belonged to Athens, an island so near the Athenian harbour
that it was absolutely necessary that it should belong to Athens.
But the war had been long and unsuccessful, and no victory had been
gained by either side. The Athenians were so "tired with this
tedious and difficult war that they made a law that it should be
death for any man, by writing or speaking, to assert that the city
ought to endeavour to recover the island." Solon felt this to be a
great disgrace, and knowing that thousands of Athenians would follow,
if only one man were brave enough to lead, he composed some fiery
verses which he recited in the market place.
I come as a herald, self-sent, from Salamis, beautiful island,
And the message I bring to your ears, I have turned it into a song.
Country and name would I change, rather than all men should say,
Pointing in scorn, "There goes one of the cowardly, lazy Athenians,
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Who let Salamis slip through their fingers, when it was
theirs for a blow!"
On then to Salamis, brothers! Let us fight for the
beautiful island,
Flinging afar from us, ever, the weight of unbearable shame.[5]
Only parts of these verses have come down to us, but they so inspired
the Athenians that it was determined to make one more effort to
regain Salamis, and this time they were successful. Salamis was
recovered, but conditions in Athens remained as unhappy as before.
Solon was now held in such high honour that we are told, "the wisest
of the Athenians pressed him to succour the commonwealth." He
consented, and was elected Archon in 594 B.C.
The first thing Solon did was to relieve the debtors. He did this by
cancelling all debts and by setting free all who were slaves for
debt, and by forbidding by law any Athenian to pledge himself, his
wife or his children as a security for debt. This brought such
relief to the state that the act was celebrated by a festival called
the "Casting off of Burdens."
Solon wanted to bring order into the distracted city he loved, for he
held that order was one of the greatest blessings a state could have,
so he set to work to reform the government of the state, to reduce
the power of the nobles and to give justice to the people. "First,
he repealed all Draco's laws," (Draco had been an earlier lawgiver in
Athens), "because they were too severe, and the punishments too {99}
great; for death was appointed for almost all offences, so that in
after times it was said that Draco's laws were written not with ink,
but blood."
Solon reformed the government of the state in such a way, that even
the poorest citizens had political rights. They could not all be
Archons, but Athens, like Sparta and other Greek states, had her
general Assembly of the people, and they could all vote at this, and
they could all take part in electing the magistrates. Whilst
recognizing the rights of the poorer citizens, Solon believed in
preserving a certain part of the power of the nobles, and he arranged
the taxation and public service to the state in such a way that the
greater the wealth of a man and the higher his position, the more the
state demanded of him, both in service and money. Solon himself said
of these laws:
I gave to the mass of the people such rank as befitted their need,
I took not away their honour, and I granted nought to their greed;
While those who were rich in power, who in wealth were glorious
and great,
I bethought me that naught should befall them unworthy their
splendour and state;
So I stood with my shield outstretched, and both were safe
in its sight,
And I would not that either should triumph, when the triumph
was not with the right.[6]
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Solon did not please everyone with his laws, and when
some came to him every day, to commend or dispraise them, and to
advise, if possible, to leave out, or put in something, and
desired him to explain, and tell the meaning of such and such a
passage, he, knowing that it was useless, and not to do it would
get him ill will, it being so hard a thing, as he himself says,
in great affairs to satisfy all sides, bought a trading vessel,
and having obtained leave for ten years' absence, departed,
hoping that by that time his laws would have become familiar.
He stayed away the ten years and then returned to Athens. He took no
further part in public affairs, but was reverenced by all and
honoured until his death.
During his travels, Plutarch tells us that he visited Croesus, the
rich King of Lydia. This visit could never have taken place, for
Solon died in Athens just as Croesus came to the throne. As a matter
of fact, Plutarch knew that quite well, but he says that he must tell
so famous a story, even if it were not true, because it was so
characteristic of Solon and so worthy of his wisdom and greatness of
mind, and that it would be foolish to omit it because it did not
agree with certain dates about which in any case everybody differed!
They say that Solon, coming to Croesus at his request, was in the
same condition as an inland man when first he goes to see the
sea; for as he fancies every river he {101} meets with to be the
ocean, so Solon, as he passed through the court, and saw a great
many nobles richly dressed, and proudly attended with a multitude
of guards and footboys, thought everyone had been the king, till
he was brought to Croesus, who was decked with every possible
rarity and curiosity, in ornaments of jewels, purple and gold,
that could make a grand and gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when
Solon came before him and seemed not at all surprised, he
commanded them to open all his treasure-houses and carry him to
see his sumptuous furniture and luxuries, though he did not wish
it; and when he returned from viewing all, Croesus asked him if
ever he had known a happier man than he. And when Solon answered
that he had known one Tellus, a fellow-citizen of his own, and
told him that this Tellus had been an honest man, had had good
children, a competent estate, and died bravely in battle for his
country, Croesus took him for an ill-bred fellow and a fool. He
asked him, however, again, if besides Tellus, he knew any other
man more happy. And Solon replying, Yes, two men who were loving
brothers and extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and when the
oxen delayed her, harnessed themselves to the waggon and drew her
to Hera's temple, her neighbours all calling her happy, and she
herself rejoicing; then, after sacrificing and feasting, they
went to rest, and never rose again, but died in the midst of
their honour a painless and tranquil death. "What," said Croesus
angrily, "and dost thou not reckon us amongst the happy men at
all?" Solon, unwilling either to flatter or exasperate him more,
replied, "The gods, O King, have given the Greeks all other gifts
in moderate degree, and so our wisdom, too, is a cheerful and
homely, not a noble and kingly wisdom, and him only to whom the
divinity has continued happiness unto the end, we call happy."
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This story is not only characteristic of Solon, but of the Greek
spirit. That spirit did not like the extreme of extravagance and
luxury and display, and it believed that there was glory that
money could not buy. The Greek who had been rewarded by a wreath
of olive leaves had achieved the greatest success known in
Greece. This was once told to a noble who had come with the
Persian King to invade Greece, and when he heard it, he exclaimed
to the King: "What kind of men are these against whom thou hast
brought us to fight, who make their contest not for money but for
honour!" That was the spirit of Greece.
IV. THE TYRANTS
Athens did not attain her political freedom without a struggle.
She passed from the rule of One man, the King, to the rule of the
Few, the oligarchy, and then through the legislation of Solon to
the rule of the Many, the people. But during this period of
change, attempts were made from time to time by powerful leaders
to get the rule entirely into their own hands. These leaders who
wanted to seize the power and rule alone were called by the
Greeks _Tyrants_. There was always the danger that such a ruler,
with no authority in the state to control him, would become
harsh, and oppressive, but this was not always the case. Though
the rule of one man alone is never the best kind of rule, some of
the Greek Tyrants made a real contribution to the states they
governed. They were generally well-educated men, {103} who
encouraged art and literature; they were always ambitious men,
and they often dreamed of extending their power beyond the limits
of their own state, and though it was a purely personal and
selfish ambition, the efforts at realizing it brought the Greeks
into contact with things which had hitherto lain beyond their
horizon, for in the Age of the Tyrants, no Greek had yet dreamed
dreams or seen visions of empire.
A man was not always successful in his efforts to become a
Tyrant. About forty years before Solon was made Archon, Cylon, a
rich Athenian, of good family and popular as a winner at Olympia,
tried to seize the power. He consulted the Oracle, which told
him to make the attempt at the time of the great festival of
Zeus. He took this, as all Greeks would, as meaning the Olympic
Games, so he waited until the time came for them, and then he and
his friends attacked the Acropolis and actually took possession
of the citadel. But it seemed that the Oracle, giving one of
those answers of which the meaning was uncertain, had referred to
the festival held in honour of Zeus near Athens and not to that
at Olympia, and Cylon's attempt was unsuccessful. Some of the
conspirators fled, and others took refuge in the Temple of
Athena. Here they were safe, for no one would dare touch anyone
who had placed himself under the protection of the goddess in her
sanctuary. But there was no food or drink in the temple, and as
nobody brought them any, some of them died of hunger, and Cylon
was forced to escape secretly. Then the Archon told the
remainder that if they {104} would surrender, their lives should
be spared. They consented, but not quite trusting the Archon,
they fastened a long rope to the Statue of Athena and held it as
they descended the hill, so that they might still be secure under
the protection of the goddess. Half-way down the hill, however,
the rope broke, and the Archon, declaring that this showed that
Athena had withdrawn her protection, had the men put to death.
This was looked upon as a great crime by the Athenians, for they
considered it not only treachery, but also sacrilege, and it made
the Archon many enemies. These declared that as a punishment for
this act a curse would rest on him and on all his descendants.
His family was descended from Alcmaeon, and so the curse was
spoken of as the curse on the Alcmaeonids, and the enemies of
this family always attributed to it any calamities that happened
to the city.
The most famous Tyrant in Athens was Peisistratus. Whilst Solon
was away on his travels, quarrels broke out again, and when he
returned, though he took no active part in affairs, he tried by
privately talking with the leaders of the various factions to
restore peace, but he was unsuccessful. "Now Peisistratus was
extremely smooth and engaging in his language, a great friend to
the poor and moderate in his resentments, so that he was trusted
more than the other leaders."[7] In this way he became very
popular, and he deceived people into thinking that he was only
desirous of serving the state, when in reality he was doing all
in his power to further his own {105} ambition and to become sole
ruler of Athens. In order to gain supporters, he appeared one
day in the market place in his chariot, which was sprinkled with
blood, and he himself appeared to be wounded. On being asked
what was the matter, he said his enemies had inflicted these
injuries upon him. One of his friends then declared that the
Athenians should not permit such a thing to happen, and advised
that a bodyguard of fifty men should accompany him to protect him
from any further assault. This was done, whereupon with their
help, Peisistratus took possession of the Acropolis. But his
power was not great enough to hold it, and he and his followers
were driven out of Athens.
Peisistratus soon returned, however, having thought of a curious
plot by which he might deceive the Athenians into believing it to
be the will of the gods that he should rule. During a festival,
accompanied by a large number of youths, he entered Athens in his
chariot, and at his side stood a tall and beautiful woman,
dressed as Athena herself and carrying a shield and spear. The
people shouted that the goddess herself had come from Olympus to
show her favour to Peisistratus, and he was received as Tyrant.
But again he was driven out by his enemies. He stayed away ten
years, and then once more he collected an army and advanced on
Athens. Once more he was successful and entered the city. This
time no one opposed him, he became sole ruler and remained so
until his death some ten years later.
Peisistratus showed himself to be a wise ruler; he improved the
city and brought water into it by an {106} aqueduct, and he built
new roads. Along these roads, especially in places near springs
and fountains, were placed small statues of Hermes, and on the
pedestals under some of them verses were engraved, perhaps
similar to the following lines, to cheer the traveller on his way:
I, Hermes, by the grey sea-shore
Set where the three roads meet,
Outside the wind-swept garden,
Give rest to weary feet;
The waters of my fountain
Are clear and cool and sweet.[8]
It was Peisistratus who made the law that men wounded in battle
and the families of those who were killed should be cared for by
the state. He built a new Temple to Athena and made her festival
more splendid, and he had the ancient poems of Homer collected
and written down, so that they might be more carefully preserved.
But good ruler as he was, he was still a Tyrant, and during his
rule the people were deprived of their right to govern
themselves, but so long as he lived, no one opposed him.
After his death, his sons Hippias and Hipparchus succeeded him,
but they forgot that, after all, they could only remain Tyrants
if the people permitted it, and they grew insolent, harsh and
overbearing. Two young Athenians formed a plot to assassinate
these oppressors at the next festival. The day came, and
Hipparchus was slain, though Hippias escaped. The {107}
conspirators were instantly seized and put to death, and Hippias
continued to rule alone. He became more and more cruel and the
Athenians were bowed down under his oppression. At last the
Spartans came to their help. They came, because for some time
whenever they sent to Delphi to ask any advice of the Oracle, the
answer always came, "First set Athens free." With this help,
Hippias was driven out and sent into exile.
Athens was free. The rule of the Tyrants was over, and Athens
was once more able to rule herself, to become that state of
which, when it was asked "what shepherd rules and lords it o'er
their people?" the answer could be given, "Of no man are they
called the slaves or subjects."[9]
[1] Plutarch: _Life of Theseus_.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Poem of Solon, from _Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution_,
translated by P. G. Kenyon. (By permission of Messrs. G. Bell
and Sons).
[4] Except where otherwise noted, the quotations in this section
are from Plutarch: _Life of Solon_.
[5] Poem of Solon, translated by Leslie White Hopkinson.
[6] Poem of Solon, from Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution,
translated by P. G. Kenyon. (By permission of Messrs. G. Bell
and Sons).
[7] Plutarch: _Life of Solon_.
[8] Written by Anyte, a poetess, probably in the 4th century
B.C., translated by Sir Rennell Rodd in _Love, Worship and Death_.
[9] Aeschylus: _The Persians_.
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