Of all the means by which in modern times the infection of that
dangerous malady, the plague, has been so much guarded against, that
according to general opinion, unless the Deity render all precaution
useless, it can never again become common in Europe, the most excellent
and the most effectual is, without doubt, the establishment of
quarantine[1124]. Had not history been more employed in transmitting
to posterity the crimes of princes, and particularly the greatest of
them, destructive wars, than in recording the introduction of such
institutions as contribute to the convenience, peace, health and
happiness of mankind, the origin of this beneficial regulation would be
less obscure than it is at present. At any rate, I have never yet been
so fortunate as to obtain a satisfactory account of it; but though I am
well-aware that I am neither acquainted with all the sources from which
it is to be drawn, nor have examined all those which are known to me, I
will venture to lay before my readers what information I have been able
to collect on the subject, assuring them at the same time, that it will
afford me great pleasure if my attempt should induce others fond of
historical research to enlarge it.
The opinion that the plague was brought to Europe from the East, is,
as far as I am able to judge, so fully confirmed, that it cannot be
any longer doubted; though it is certainly true, that every nation
endeavours to trace the origin of infectious disorders to other
people. The Turks think that the plague came to them from Egypt;
the inhabitants of that country imagine that they received it from
Ethiopia; and perhaps the Ethiopians do not believe that this dreadful
scourge originated among them[1125]. As the plague however has always
been conveyed to us from the East, and has first, and most frequently,
broken out in those parts of Europe which approach nearest to the
Levant, both in their physical and political situation, those I mean
which border on Turkey, and carry on with it the most extensive trade,
we may with the more probability conjecture that these countries
first established quarantine, the most powerful means of preventing
that evil. If further search be made in regard to this idea, we shall
be inclined to ascribe that service to the Venetians, a people who,
when the plague began to be less common, not only carried on the
greatest trade in the Levant, but had the misfortune to become always
nearer neighbours to the victorious Turks. It is also probable that
the Hungarians and Transylvanians soon followed their example in this
approved precaution, as the Turks continued to approach them; and this
agrees perfectly with everything I have read in history.
In the first centuries of the Christian æra, it does not seem to have
been known that infection could be communicated by clothing and other
things used by infected persons. The Christians all considered the
plague as a divine punishment, or predestinated event, which it was as
impossible to avoid as an earthquake; and the physicians ascribed the
spreading of it to corrupted air, which could not be purified by human
art. The Christians therefore gave themselves up, like the Turks at
present, to an inactive and obstinate resignation in the will of God,
and hoped by fasting and prayer to hasten the end of their misfortune.
But after the plague in the fourteenth century, which continued
longer than any other, and extended over the greater part of Europe,
the survivors found that it was possible to guard against or prevent
infection; and governments then began to order establishments of all
kinds to be formed against it. The oldest of which mention has yet been
found in history, are those in Lombardy and Milan of the years 1374,
1383 and 1399[1126].
In the first-mentioned year the Visconte Bernabo made regulations,
the object of which was to guard against the spreading of the plague
by intercourse and mixing with those who were infected; and with that
view it was ordered, that those afflicted with this disease should be
removed from the city, and allowed either to die or to recover in the
open air. Those who acted otherwise were to suffer capital punishment,
and their property was to be confiscated. But twenty-five years after
it was strictly commanded that the clothes and things used by those
who had the plague should be purified with great care: and in 1383 it
was forbidden under severe punishment to suffer any infected person
to enter the country. These means, however imperfect, must have been
attended with utility, because they were again employed during a new
danger of the same kind in the fifteenth century.
Brownrigg, an Englishman, who wrote a book on the means of preventing
the plague, says, that quarantine was first established by the
Venetians in the year 1484[1127], but like his learned countryman
Mead, who assigns the same year, without adducing any proofs[1128]. I
imagined that I should find some more certain information respecting
this point in Le Bret’s History of the Republic of Venice; but as
that historian does not mention, as the title professes, the original
sources from which he derived his materials, his work is less worthy
of credit. He tells us however that the grand council in 1348, chose
three prudent persons, whom they ordered to investigate the best means
for preserving health, and to lay the result of their inquiry before
the council. The plague which broke out afterwards in 1478, rendered
it necessary that some permanent means should be thought of, and on
that account a peculiar magistracy consisting of three noblemen, with
the title of _sopra la sanità_, was instituted in 1485. As these were
not able to stop the progress of the disease, the painful office
was imposed upon them, in 1504, of imprisoning people against whom
complaints might be lodged, and even of putting them to death; and in
1585 it was declared, that from the sentence of these judges there
should be no appeal. Their principal business was to inspect the
lazarettos erected in certain places at some distance from the city,
and in which it was required that all persons and merchandize coming
from suspected parts should continue a stated time fixed by the laws.
The captain of every ship was obliged also to show there the bill of
health which he had brought along with him.
As Le Bret produces no proof that quarantine was established by the
Venetians so early as he says, I cannot help suspecting that he is
mistaken respecting the year (1348), and conjecture that it ought to
be 1448, or perhaps 1484. I have not been able however to resolve
my doubt; for, in examining different Italian writers, I find that
various years are given[1129]. The institution of the council of health
(_sopra la sanità_) is mentioned by Bembo; but I cannot discover from
him to what year he alludes[1130]. His countryman Lancellotti, who
undoubtedly must have understood him well, makes it to be 1491[1131].
Caspar Contarenus, who died in 1542, in the sixtieth year of his age,
mentions no particular period, and only says that the institution had
been formed not long before his time[1132]. The islands on which the
pest-houses were erected, were called _il Lazaretto vecchio_ and _il
Lazaretto nuovo_. In the elegant description of Venice, ornamented
with abundance of plates, below mentioned, it is remarked that the
pest-house on the former island was built in 1423, and that on the
latter in 1468[1133]. The same account is given in the newest and best
Topography of Venice[1134].
The Venetians are entitled to the merit of having improved the
establishments formed to prevent infection; and that their example
was followed in other countries is generally admitted. But the year
in which quarantine was first ordered by them to be performed is
uncertain. Muratori[1135], following Lorenzo Candio, gives the year
1484, and Howard[1136] says that the college of health was instituted
in 1448.
Brownrigg affirms that letters of health, in which he confides more
than in quarantine, were first written in 1665 by the consuls of the
different commercial nations, but they are much older, for Zegata[1137]
asserts that they were first established in 1527, when the plague again
made its appearance in Europe.
This much is certain, that all these means against infection,
which, though far from being perfect, have secured Europe from this
misfortune, were not invented or proposed by physicians, but ordered
by the police, contrary to their theory. The latter seem to have known,
at an early period, the most dangerous causes of infection, and to have
formed at a very great expense precautionary means, the observance of
which was enforced under pain of the severest punishment.
Why the space of forty days was chosen as a proof I do not know. It
arose no doubt from the doctrine of the physicians in regard to the
critical days of many diseases. The fortieth day seems to have been
considered as the last or extreme of all the critical days; on which
subject many physicians appear to have entertained various astrological
conceits[1138]. On the Turkish frontiers this period was reduced under
the emperor Joseph II. to twenty days[1139].
[With respect to the quarantine establishments in this country,
Mc Culloch observes that they are exceedingly defective. Even in the
Thames there is not a lazaretto where a ship from a suspected place
may discharge her cargo and refit; so that she is detained, frequently
at an enormous expense, during the whole period of quarantine, while
if she have perishable goods on board, they may be very materially
injured. The complaints as to the oppressiveness of quarantine
regulations are almost wholly occasioned by the want of proper
facilities for its performance. Were these afforded, the burdens it
imposes would be rendered comparatively light.
The existing quarantine regulations are embodied in the act 6 George
IV. c. 78, and the different orders in council issued under its
authority. These orders specify what vessels are liable to perform
quarantine, the places at which it is to be performed, and the various
formalities and regulations to be complied with.]