THE CATHEDRALS
OF
GREAT BRITAIN
[Illustration York Minster.]
THE CATHEDRALS
OF
GREAT BRITAIN
_THEIR HISTORY AND ARCHITECTURE_
BY
P.H. DITCHFIELD, M.A., F.S.A.
_Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, Rector of Barkham_
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
BY
HERBERT RAILTON, J.A. SYMINGTON, H.M. JAMES, H. CRICKMORE, ETC.
1902
LONDON: J.M. DENT & COMPANY
PHILADELPHIA: J.B. LIPPINCOTT COY.
_All Rights Reserved_
PREFACE
In this volume I have attempted to give an architectural description
of all the cathedral churches of England, Wales, and Scotland,
together with a brief history of each see. In order to include any
adequate account of each church and bishopric in one volume of
portable size, which may be of use to visitors in their travels, much
compression has been necessary, but it is hoped that nothing of
importance has been omitted which might be useful to those who would
read aright the architectural history of our great churches. On
account of their immense importance in the history of Gothic art, it
has been thought well to include in this volume some account of the
churches of Westminster and Beverley. At the close of each history of
a cathedral will be found a record of the principal building dates and
dimensions, and also a brief account of the chief places and churches
of interest in the city or neighbourhood which it is advisable to
visit.
I desire to express my grateful thanks to all who have kindly assisted
in the preparation of this work, to the deans and canons-in-residence
who have often guided me by their counsel during my study of their
cathedrals, and also to the vergers who have readily afforded me much
valuable help. More especially do I wish to thank the Deans of
Lincoln, Ely, Chester and Gloucester, Canon Tristram of Durham, Bishop
Anson of Lichfield, and Archdeacon Richardson of Southwell, for their
courtesy and kindly interest. I have also to record my obligations to
the work of many previous writers. The works of Freeman, Rickman,
Britton, Willis, Winkle, and the Diocesan histories published by
S.P.C.K. have been consulted, as well as the special monographs on
each cathedral, which are too numerous to mention. Prior's _Gothic
Art_ has been of the greatest possible assistance, Addis's _Scottish
Cathedrals and Abbeys_, and also the very valuable and indispensable
handbooks published by the late Mr. John Murray. I have found the
volumes of Bell's Cathedral Series most useful when visiting the
buildings of which they treat, and Messrs. Isbister's volumes written
by the deans of our cathedrals contain picturesque and attractive
accounts of the historic buildings. To all these works I desire to
acknowledge my great indebtedness. And lastly I have to record my
grateful thanks to the artists who have enriched these pages with
their charming drawings, and to Mr. Dent, the publisher of this work,
for much encouragement, valuable advice, and able direction, without
which this volume would have lacked whatever of merit it may possess.
P.H. DITCHFIELD.
BARKHAM RECTORY,
_September 8, 1902_.
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE CATHEDRALS OF GREAT
BRITAIN 1
ST. PAUL'S 8
WESTMINSTER 35
ROCHESTER 57
CANTERBURY 68
WINCHESTER 85
CHICHESTER 96
SALISBURY 108
OXFORD 125
BRISTOL 138
WELLS 149
BATH 161
EXETER 164
TRURO 177
GLOUCESTER 178
HEREFORD 204
WORCESTER 216
LICHFIELD 230
CHESTER 248
LIVERPOOL 263
MANCHESTER 264
CARLISLE 272
NEWCASTLE 282
DURHAM 283
RIPON 297
YORK 309
BEVERLEY 327
WAKEFIELD 333
LINCOLN 337
SOUTHWELL 351
PETERBOROUGH 360
ELY 377
NORWICH 393
ST. ALBAN'S 409
ST. ASAPH'S 423
BANGOR 426
LLANDAFF 429
ST. DAVID'S 432
GLASGOW 439
IONA 441
BRECHIN 442
ABERDEEN 443
DUNBLANE 444
DUNKELD 445
ST. ANDREW'S 446
ST. GILES', EDINBURGH 447
KIRKWALL 448
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS 450
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
York Minster _Frontispiece_
St. Paul's from Cheapside 11
The West Front 23
The Nave from the Choir 28
Woodwork, South Choir Aisle 29
Johnson's Statue 31
Dean's Yard, Westminster, in 1730 37
The North Front 40
Poets' Corner 43
Henry V.'s Chantry 47
Interior from Chapel of St. John 51
Rochester Cathedral 59
Canterbury Cathedral 71
Tomb of the Black Prince 78
The Crypt 80
Winchester Cathedral 89
West Front 93
Chichester Cathedral 99
The Presbytery 105
Salisbury Cathedral 111
Strengthening Arches, East Transepts 116
Oxford Cathedral 129
The Interior 133
Bristol Cathedral, the Central Tower 143
Wells Cathedral 153
Entrance to Crypt 159
Exeter Cathedral 165
Detail of Minstrels' Gallery 170
Gloucester Cathedral, The Deanery 179
From S.E. 183
Nave Pillars from the West 187
The Choir, looking East 191
The Lady Chapel 195
Carrel in South Cloister 199
Hereford Cathedral from the Wye 207
The Cantelupe Shrine 211
Worcester Cathedral from the Severn 219
Lichfield Cathedral, Distant View of Exterior 235
St. Oswald's Gate, Chester Cathedral 249
Chester Cathedral 253
The Choir 257
Shrine of St. Werburgh 261
Carlisle Cathedral from S.E. 275
Durham Cathedral 285
The Galilee Chapel 290
The Bishop's Throne 293
Ripon Cathedral from North 299
The Great Buttresses 302
The Apse 303
York Cathedral--Tomb of Archbishop Walter de Grey 311
Chapter House 313
North Aisle of Choir 317
The Ladye Chapel 321
The Crypt 323
Beverley Minster, the West Front 328
Beverley Minster 329
Percy Shrine 332
Wakefield Cathedral 334
Chantry Chapel on Wakefield Bridge 335
Lincoln Cathedral Towers and Potter Gate 338
Lincoln Cathedral and Exchequer Gate 342
The Angel Choir 347
Southwell Central Tower and N. Transept 355
Peterborough Cathedral 365
North-west Transept 370
Ely Cathedral--Arm of Abbot's Chair 378
West Tower from Deanery Gardens 379
The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Lady
Chapel 381
Ely Cathedral from South-east 383
The Octagon and Lantern from North-west 384
St. Catherine's Chapel 386
In South Aisle of Nave looking to North Transept 387
Carrel in Cloister 388
Norwich Cathedral 397
A Bay, North Side of Nave 401
Ancient Bishop's Throne 403
Bridge, North Aisle of Presbytery 404
St. Alban's Cathedral 411
LIST OF PLANS
PAGE
St. Paul's Cathedral 34
Westminster Abbey 56
Canterbury Cathedral 83
Winchester Cathedral 95
Salisbury Cathedral 124
Wells Cathedral 163
Gloucester Cathedral 203
Worcester Cathedral 229
Durham Cathedral 296
York Cathedral 326
Lincoln Cathedral 350
Peterborough Cathedral 376
Ely Cathedral 392
Norwich Cathedral 408
Cathedrals of Great Britain
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE CATHEDRALS OF GREAT BRITAIN
We are endeavouring to follow the traces of the handiwork of the great
master-builders who have filled the English Isle with so many noble
shrines, to mark the growth and development of the various styles and
modes of building, and to endeavour to interpret their meaning. The
story of the rise and fall of English Gothic art has a fascination
that is all its own; and with the intention of endeavouring to realise
its high aims, its strength and beauty, and to understand its true
spirit, we will start on our pilgrimage to those fanes which it has
reared to the honour and glory of the Most High. And as we watch the
rise and progress of English Gothic art, we shall note that it is no
exotic, no alien welcomed to our shores; but a true English native
art, born in the brains and faith of our English forefathers, and
nourished here with a nation's whole-hearted affection. French writers
on architecture are accustomed to state that our English Gothic came
from France, and that each stage and change were wrought by the
influence of foreign masons and were borrowed from them. There could
not be a greater error. The Anglo-Norman style was developed quite as
much in this country as in Normandy, which was then a province of
England. We shall see that English Gothic sprang into being in the
choir of Lincoln. No foreign mason taught our English masons the
secret of their art. Even Westminster, most French of all our
buildings, and designed by a foreigner, is, in the language of Sir
Gilbert Scott, "a great French thought expressed in excellent
English." And while we have a style peculiarly our own, the
Perpendicular of the fifteenth century, at that period the French
with their Flamboyant tracery were only imitating the flowing lines
of our fourteenth-century Decorated. And as we study more carefully
these examples of English Gothic art, we shall admire the great
unknown toilers who built so surely and so well, who put their hearts
and lives, affections and religion into their work; we shall reverence
the relics of their handiwork which time has spared and love them
exceedingly.
For the convenience of classification, mediæval architecture has been
divided into four distinct styles or periods, and we must again
chronicle the oft-told story of their varied peculiarities.
I. The Norman style commenced in the reign of Edward the Confessor,
whose work at Westminster (the sub-structure of the dormitory and the
lower part of the walls of the refectory with the ornamental arcade)
is declared to be the earliest example of the Norman style in England.
This style prevailed to the time of Henry II., when a period of
transition set in, and the style began to approximate to that of the
succeeding century. The main characteristics of the Norman style
are--cylindrical massive piers, round-headed arches, a great variety
of mouldings such as zigzag, billet, double-cone, pellet, lozenge,
beak-head, etc., small and narrow windows splayed only on the inside,
buttresses slightly projecting from the wall. Some of the best
examples of this style are the naves of Ely, Gloucester, Durham, and
much Norman work is seen at Winchester, Exeter, Canterbury, Chester,
Peterborough, Norwich, Rochester, Chichester, Oxford, Worcester, Wells
and Hereford.
II. The Early English style began with the thirteenth century, in the
reign of King John, the choir of Lincoln being the earliest example.
Wearied with the Romanesque uncouth details of Norman art, the English
masons were feeling after and finding a more excellent way, and
discovered the beauties of Gothic architecture. This style flourished
until the time of Edward I.; during his reign another period of
transition set in, and this style gradually developed into the
Decorated.
Its main characteristics are lighter and more elegant forms of
construction and decoration, pointed arches, often shaped like a
surgeon's lancet, whence they derive their name, deeply undercut
mouldings, dog-tooth ornament, piers formed of columns with detached
shafts united under one capital, and bound together by a band,
bell-shaped capitals, stiff-leaved foliage, trefoiled arches,
plate-tracery. Early English work is seen in the choir of Lincoln,
Worcester, Chichester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, Rochester, York
(south transept), Southwell, Ripon, Ely, Peterborough, Durham ("nine
altars"), Glasgow.
III. The Decorated style commenced in the fourteenth century, or a few
years earlier, reached its zenith before the middle of the century,
and ended with the reign of the third Edward. The period of transition
between this style and the last is perhaps the era of the greatest
beauty of English art. The characteristics of the style are, more
elaborateness of detail and ornament, much larger windows with
beautiful and complex tracery, heavier buttresses, piers with
closely-joined shafts, not detached as before, sculpture closely
imitating natural foliage, mouldings less deeply cut, the ball-flower
ornament. Decorated work is very plentiful, and may be seen in the
chapter-houses of Wells, Norwich, Winchester, Canterbury, also at
York, Lichfield, Exeter, Carlisle, Lincoln, Southwell, and elsewhere.
A period of transition again followed during the last half of the
fourteenth century, during which the style developed into the
Perpendicular.
IV. The Perpendicular style prevailed during the fifteenth century and
continued until the reign of Henry VIII., when the mediæval period
ceased. This style is, as we have said, peculiar to England. In
Scotland, where French influence was great, there are many examples of
the Flamboyant style, which prevailed in France, and was scarcely
known in England. This style is characterised by more elaborate and
richer work, increased use of ornament and panelled decoration,
peculiar window tracery (the mullions being carried straight up
through the head of the window, while smaller mullions spring from the
heads of the principal lights), much larger windows, depressed arches
(Tudor arch), much heavier buttresses, mouldings carried up the piers
and arches without any break or capital, cavetto (a wide and rather
shallow variety), ogee, bowtell mouldings, the rose ornament, Tudor
flower. The extensive use of panelling is always the hall-mark of the
Perpendicular period. The choir of Gloucester is the earliest known
example of this style, and King's College, Cambridge, St. George's
Chapel, Windsor, and Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster, are the most
perfect specimens of Perpendicular art.
Then followed the Renaissance period, when classical and Roman
features were mingled with the latest English style. There was an
attempt to revive the Gothic style in the time of James I., but the
foreign influence was too strong, and not till the close of the
eighteenth century did this revival take place. The love of Gothic
art had never been quite extinguished in this country, and to the
English people belongs the honour of restoring to its rightful place
that style which has created so many superb and magnificent buildings
instinctive of the faith and reverence which first called them into
being.
In our cathedrals we have endless varieties of plan, construction,
style and adornment, as well as in the associations connected with
their histories. They derive their name from the Latin word _Cathedra_
(Greek, [Greek: Kathedra]), signifying a seat, a cathedral church
being that particular church of the diocese where the bishop's seat or
throne is placed. If this church belonged to a monastery it was served
by the monks, but many of our cathedrals were in the hands of secular
canons, who were not monks, and should not be confused with the
"regular" clergy. Monastic churches had always a complete series of
monastic buildings--the cloister-court, the centre of a monk's life,
around which were grouped the chapter-house, dormitory, refectory,
infirmary, hospitium or guest-hall. Churches served by secular canons
sometimes have a cloister, but this was added more as an ornament, and
was not a necessity. The Reformation wrought many changes in our
cathedrals. Out of the spoil of the monasteries Henry VIII. undertook
to endow five new sees, and thus created the sees of Oxford,
Peterborough, Chester, Gloucester and Bristol. These are called the
cathedrals of the New Foundation, and with these are classed the
monastic cathedrals which survived the shock of the Reformation, viz.:
Canterbury, Winchester, Worcester, Rochester, Norwich, Ely, Durham,
Carlisle. The cathedrals of the Old Foundation which survived, with
some changes in their constitution, were York, London, Salisbury,
Wells, Chichester, Hereford, Exeter, Lichfield and Lincoln, and the
Welsh dioceses of St. David's, Llandaff, Bangor and St. Asaph.
Episcopacy was finally banished from the Church of Scotland on the
advent of William III.; hence the cathedrals in the northern country
are so only in name. The Episcopal Church of Scotland has, of course,
cathedrals, but most of these are modern. Since the Reformation in
England, and especially in modern times, many new sees have been
formed; these are Manchester, Liverpool, Ripon, St. Alban's,
Southwell, Truro, Wakefield and Newcastle. The plan of our cathedrals
is usually cruciform, formed by a nave with aisles, north and south
transepts, central tower, choir and presbytery. Sometimes the plan is
that of a double cross, there being a second or eastern transept
towards the eastern end of the choir.
Our inspection of the exterior begins first by trying to obtain a good
general view of the building. We notice the remains of the walls and
gates which guarded the close, or precincts of the cathedral. Within
these walls the bishop's power was supreme. If sanctuary was claimed
by a fugitive from justice, here he was safe; and the clergy and the
serving-men were free from the ordinary law, and could be tried only
by the ecclesiastics.
Then we notice the west front, usually a fine screen of stone-work,
wherein are enshrined in niches weather-worn statues telling of the
men of old who had done well in their days for their Church and realm.
Passing to the north we see the central tower, possibly Norman as
high as the roof, with a superstructure of later times. The pitch of
the roof may have been altered in later times from a high pitch to
a flat one, and the marks of the old roof may often be seen on the
tower walls. Just below the eaves is the range of clerestory windows.
Flying buttresses connecting the buttresses of the outer wall with
those of the inner are frequent and produce a very graceful effect.
Niches for statues are often carved upon the buttresses. Curious
grotesquely-carved heads, called gargoyles, look down upon us from
the gutters of the roof. The tracery of the windows is no indication
of the age of the walls, as they have frequently been inserted in
place of others of an older period. The porch is a large structure,
and sometimes has a chamber, called a parvise, over it. The object of
this chamber cannot always be determined. Sometimes it was the abode
of the sacristan, and occasionally it was set apart for the use of an
anchorite or recluse. The monastic buildings are usually on the south
side in Benedictine monasteries, but sometimes on account of the nature
of the ground they are on the north.
On entering the church we view the nave, which is usually in three
storeys--the main arcade, the triforium, which opens into a gallery or
passage, and the clerestory. Sometimes the choir occupies two bays of
the nave, but usually begins with the screen placed on the east side
of the central tower. This screen was formerly the rood-screen, and a
large crucifix stood on it; but at the Reformation all roods were
destroyed, and sometimes the organ stands in its place.
Entering the choir we see before us the high altar with a fine reredos
behind it, so called from the French _L'arrière-dos_, meaning
"embroidered hangings." On the south of this is the piscina,
consisting of a hollow basin with a stone-drain, wherein the priest
cleansed the sacred vessels after using them in the Holy Eucharist. On
the same side are the sedilia, or stone seats for the clergy,
frequently with richly-carved canopies. Then there are the
beautifully-carved stalls with fine tabernacle work, and the
_sub-sellæ_ or misereres (French, _miséricorde_) with their quaint
carvings. It is a popular error, gravely perpetrated by some cathedral
vergers and others, to suppose these misereres were a kind of
ingenious trap for sleepy monks, who, when the heavy seat fell down
with a loud bang, were detected in slumber and forced to do penance.
They were so placed as a concession to human weakness in order that
the monks or canons might lean against them during the long mediæval
services, when sitting was not allowed. The eastern portion of the
choir is called the presbytery.
We pass to the north aisle of the choir and proceed to the ambulatory,
processional path, or retro-choir. Here, at the back of the altar, was
the chief shrine, where the relics of some great saint were preserved
under a gorgeous cover decorated with gold and silver and precious
jewels, to which crowds of pilgrims flocked, and there prayed and
gazed upon the wondrous shrine, and made their offerings. The steps
and pavement leading to the shrine often still show by their worn
condition the evidence of the tread of countless numbers of pilgrims.
Near the shrine was a watching chamber, where a monk stayed to guard
the shrine and its treasures.
Eastward of the ambulatory is usually the Lady Chapel, where the altar
of the Virgin stood; and here, and in other parts of the church, are
numerous chantry chapels, sometimes built on to the church, or in the
church itself, containing effigies of the founders and altar tombs,
where masses were said by specially-endowed chantry priests for the
repose of the souls of the deceased and their families. Some effigies
of knights and warriors have their legs crossed. It is another popular
error to suppose that this fashion of representing the deceased had
anything to do with the Crusades. Beneath some portion of the church
we find a crypt with the remains of numerous altars, where masses were
said for the souls of those who lie buried here.
A door on the south side of the church leads to the cloister court;
immediately on the left as we traverse the east walk we see the slype
or passage leading to the monks' cemetery. Another door from this walk
leads to the chapter-house, where the monks assembled daily to arrange
the affairs of the monastery, enforce its discipline, assign the
duties of the day and transact other business. On the same side of the
cloister was the dormitory; the refectory was on the south; the uses
of the buildings on the west side varied in different houses.
As we see our cathedrals now, the view that meets us differs much from
that which would have greeted us in mediæval times. Then all was
ablaze with colours. Through the beautiful ancient glass the light
gleamed on tints of gorgeous hues, on rich tapestries and hangings, on
walls bedight with paintings, and every monument, pier and capital
were aglow with coloured decorations. We have lost much, but still
much remains. At the Reformation the avaricious courtiers of Henry
VIII. plundered our sacred shrines, and carried off under the plea of
banishing superstition vast stores of costly plate and jewels,
tapestry and hangings. In the Civil War time riotous fanatical
soldiery wrought havoc everywhere, hacking beautifully-carved tombs
and canopies, destroying brasses, and mutilating all that they could
find. Ages of neglect have also left their marks upon our churches;
and above all, the hand of the ignorant and injudicious "restorer" has
fallen heavily on these legacies of Gothic art, destroying much that
was of singular beauty, and replacing it by the miserable productions
of early nineteenth-century fabrication.
But in spite of all the evils that have been wrought, in spite of
Puritan iconoclasm and Reformation violence, in spite of natural
decay, eighteenth-century lethargy, and the intemperate zeal of unwise
and tasteless modern restorers, our cathedrals still preserve much of
their ancient beauty and attractiveness. They are standing witnesses
to the greatness of the masons and builders who fashioned and
perfected our English Gothic art, "an art that was created here in
this land according to our native instincts, and in accord with the
sober dress of our skies and the simple pleasantness of our
scenery."[1] A man cannot fail to love that English art, whether he
has been born amongst it like ourselves, or has come wonderingly on
its simplicity from all the grandeur over seas.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] _History of Gothic Art in England_, by E.S. Prior.
ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
The great Cathedral of St. Paul has abundant claims to the love and
veneration of every Englishman. Situated in the heart of the city of
London, it has ever been associated with the religious, social and
civic life of the people; and as the great national Cathedral of
England all the principal events in our country's annals have been
connected with St. Paul's. Without doubt it is the finest and grandest
building in London, if not in the world. Comparing it with St. Peter's
at Rome, we find that its dimensions are, of course, much smaller,
though its grace and beauty are in no way inferior to the magnificent
conception of Michael Angelo. It is the shrine of our national heroes,
the _chef d'oeuvre_ of a great genius; its massive dome surmounted
by a golden cross greets the traveller returning from beyond seas; its
walls have echoed with the strains of high thanksgiving on the
occasion of national victories and blessings, when kings and queens
have come in solemn state to render thanks to Him who is the King of
kings and Lord of lords. Just as Westminster was ever the church of
the king and the government, so St. Paul's was the church of the
citizens.
The prominent place which St. Paul's takes in the national and social
life of England, in the great functions of Church and State, and in
promoting the religious life of the people, is worthy of its best
traditions, and at no time during its long history has it taken a
higher place in the affections of the nation.
THE OLDER CATHEDRALS OF ST. PAUL'S
The present Cathedral, erected by the skill and genius of Sir
Christopher Wren, is the third sacred edifice built upon this site.
Indeed, Camden and certain early fanciful historians tell us of a
Roman temple dedicated to Diana which they assert once stood here,
erected during the time of the Diocletian persecution upon the site of
an early Christian church. It is, however, certain that when Sir
Christopher sank his foundations for the present building, he found
beneath the interred bodies of mediæval times several Saxon stone
coffins, and at a still lower depth Celtic and Roman remains, showing
that the site had been set apart as a cemetery from very early times.
The earliest church of which we have sure records was erected in Saxon
times by good King Ethelbert of Kent in the year 610. St. Mellitus,
the companion of St. Augustine, was the first English Bishop of
London,[2] who came there in order to convert the East Saxons.
Siebert, their king, joined with his uncle, Ethelbert, in building the
Cathedral church, and the former probably founded the monastery of St.
Peter called Westminster on Thorney Island, a place then "terrible
from its desolate aspect--a mass of marsh and brushwood."
But the Londoners loved their Paganism, and took not kindly to the new
faith. The men of the "emporium of many nations" clung to their
worship of Wodin and Thor, and not even the wise words of Mellitus in
the new Cathedral could win them. It was the original design of Pope
Gregory, who sent Augustine to our shores, to make the Cathedral of
London the Metropolitan Church of England--a design which Augustine
could not carry out on account of the violent opposition of the
Pagan-loving people. Hence Canterbury was elevated to the position of
the Metropolitan Church. Thirty-eight years passed away. At length the
fiery spirit of the Londoners was subdued after three great missionary
efforts, and they gradually learned the story of the cross. The
Cathedral was beautified by Bishop Cedd, brother of St. Cedd or Chad
of Lichfield, and Sebbe, King of Essex, and was fortunate in having
St. Erkenwald as the fourth Bishop of London, who wrought great
wonders and attracted many converts, restoring wealth and honour to
his Cathedral. To his memory a golden shrine was erected which was
much frequented by pilgrims. Saxon kings gave of their wealth to the
endowment of the Cathedral, and many rich lands were granted to it, as
the ancient charters bear witness.
Fire has always been a great foe to St. Paul's. A very destructive
conflagration raged in 961 A.D., and again in 1086 the Cathedral was
wholly destroyed. We have no means of knowing what kind of
architecture characterised this earliest fane, but probably it
possessed round arches of stone, massive piers, and the usual
characteristics of the Saxon style.
The energy of the English people is evident to all who study our
national annals. When any alarming catastrophe occurs, immediately
they arise to repair the disaster. As it was in the seventeenth
century when the Great Fire swept over London and laid the city low,
so it was in the eleventh. The Saxon church had no sooner been reduced
to a heap of ruins than the Norman builders began to rear another
noble pile. Bishop Maurice was the designer of this great edifice,
which existed until the time of the Great Fire, though it was greatly
injured by a fire in 1136.
A very noble church it must have been, with its walls ablaze with
colour, richly-canopied tombs, pictures and frescoes, books, and
vestments glittering with gold, silver and precious stones. It was the
largest Cathedral in England.
Old pictures tell us that it was cruciform, with a high tower and
spire in the centre. The nave was long and noble, built in Norman
style, having twelve bays. William of Malmesbury describes it as being
"so stately and beautiful that it was worthily numbered amongst the
most famous buildings." At the west end were two towers for bells, and
sometimes used as prisons. The central tower had flying buttresses.
Besides the high altar there were seventy or eighty chantries, with
their own altars all ablaze with rich draperies. St. Paul's was also
very rich in relics, among the number of which were two arms of St.
Mellitus, a knife of our Lord, some hair of Mary Magdalene, blood of
St. Paul, milk of the Virgin, the hand of St. John, the skull of
Thomas à Becket, the head of King Ethelbert. But "the pride, glory and
fountain of wealth" to St. Paul's was the body of St. Erkenwald,
covered with a golden shrine, behind the high altar. Dean Milman
states that in the year 1344 the offerings made by pilgrims alone
amounted to £9000. The choir was rebuilt in 1221, and the Lady Chapel
added in 1225. There was a very large east window, and a rose window
over it. Buttresses crowned with pinnacles and adorned with niches
supported the walls. The interior view, judging from Hollar's
engraving, must have been very fine. The pillars and arches were Late
Norman. The choir consisted of twelve bays and was finished about the
end of the thirteenth century. We have few records to tell us about
the details of the building of this old St. Paul's. In 1312 the nave
was paved with marble, and two years later a spire of wood was raised
to the height of 460 feet, then the highest in the world. This was
damaged and ultimately destroyed by lightning.
[Illustration ST. PAUL'S FROM CHEAPSIDE]
FOOTNOTE:
[2] There were some British Bishops of London. One of these,
Restitutus, was present at the Council of Arles in A.D. 314, and
Geoffrey mentions Theon, Bishop of London, amongst those who fled into
Wales during the Saxon invasion.
THE PRECINCTS
We will now examine the precincts of the Cathedral. A wall surrounded
the vast space which extended from Carter Lane on the south to Creed
Lane and included Paternoster Row. This wall had six gates, the site
of two of which is marked by St. Paul's Alley and Paul's Chain. The
Bishop's Palace occupied the north-west corner of this space, and on
the north were some cloisters decorated with mural paintings
representing the Dance of Death, a favourite subject of mediæval
painters, of which Holbein's conceptions are best known. This cloister
was on the site of Pardon Churchyard, where a chapel was founded by
Gilbert à Becket, the father of St. Thomas of noted memory. The
chapter-house stood on the south side of the Cathedral, and was a very
beautiful structure, so beautiful that Protector Somerset coveted the
materials for his palace in the Strand, and took down and removed
them.
At the north-east corner of the precincts stood the famous Paul's
Cross, the scene of so many famous preachings and strange events,
where folk-motes were held, Papal bulls promulgated, Royal
proclamations made, excommunications and public penances declared, and
sometimes riots and tumults excited. Paul's Cross played a very
prominent part in the history of old London. Near the Pardon
Churchyard once stood the Parish Church of St. Faith, called the
Chapel of Jesus; but this was destroyed, and the parishioners received
in lieu of it a church in the crypt of the Cathedral. Fuller,
remarking on this and on the existence of the Parish Church of St.
Gregory on the Thames side of the Cathedral, quaintly observed, "St.
Paul's may be called the Mother Church indeed, having one babe in her
body and another in her arms."
St. Paul's was the centre of the life of London. Its great bell
summoned the London citizens to their three annual folk-motes at
Paul's Cross, where all the municipal business of the city was
transacted, disputes settled, grievances stated and rights vindicated.
Very turbulent and jealous of their liberties were these good
citizens, and even the sovereign will of kings and queens must bow
before the noisy clamours of the burghers of London. The bell of St.
Paul's, like that of its famous brother "Roland" at Ghent, seemed
endowed with a human voice when it summoned the multitudes to their
meeting-place at the Cross, and declared in loud tones the will of the
people.
HISTORICAL EVENTS
The citizens might well love to have their church in their midst, for
the ecclesiastical power was very strong, and often enabled them to
defy the will of tyrannical kings or troublesome barons. In the time
of the Conqueror, Bishop William of London obtained from the king a
renewal of their privileges of which the monarch had deprived them. In
gratitude for this benefit, the mayor, aldermen and livery companies
of London used to visit the tomb of the good bishop in grand
procession, in order to pray for his soul, and to commemorate his
great services.
In the reign of Stephen civil war raged, and the country was divided
into hostile camps, one siding with the king and the other with the
Empress Maud. The citizens of London were not doubtful in their
opinions. They rang the great bell of St. Paul's, summoned their
folk-mote, and loudly declared that it was the privilege of the
citizens of their great city to elect a sovereign for England, and
with one voice supported Stephen.
Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, was a favourite of the
citizens, though hated by his sovereign. Gilbert à Becket, his father,
had a shop in Cheapside on the site of Mercers' Hall, whither the fair
Saracen is said to have followed him from the Holy Land, where he had
gone on a Crusade. He built a chapel in the churchyard of St. Paul,
and his son, the famous archbishop, was well known to the citizens.
Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London, however, had taken the side of the
king, Henry II., in the fatal quarrel, and aroused the anger of the
prelate. A curious scene took place in consequence in old St. Paul's.
A priest was celebrating mass, when a man approached, thrust a paper
into his hand, and cried aloud, "Know all men that Gilbert, Bishop of
London, is excommunicated by Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury." The
news spread fast among the citizens. Foliot at first attempted to defy
the dread sentence; but he knew something of the nature of the
citizens of London, and wisely bowed before the decree, which the
people were quite willing to enforce.
St. Paul's was the scene of a memorable council in the reign of
Richard Coeur de Lion, who was crusading in Palestine. The bishops,
together with the king's brother John, met in the nave and condemned
Longchamp to resign the office of justiciary, and to surrender the
castles which he held in the name of the king. During this reign a
factious demagogue, William Fitz-Osbert, equally distinguished by the
length of his beard and the vehemence of his eloquence, called the
people together at Paul's Cross, and excited them to rebel against
their oppressors. Bishop Hubert, however, calmed the multitude on the
eve of a formidable rising. The people deserted their leader, who took
refuge in St. Mary-le-Bow Church, which was set on fire, and
Fitz-Osbert suffered death at the hands of the hangman. Thus from the
tyranny of a Royal favourite, and from that of a mob orator, the
people were saved by the influence of the Church in St. Paul's
Cathedral.
A still greater service did St. Paul's render to England. Here was
assembled a grand concourse of bishops, abbots, deans, priors and
barons, to withstand the oppressive lawlessness of King John. Here
Magna Charta was first devised. Here, at the instigation of Archbishop
Langton, the barons and chief men swore to maintain the principles of
the Charta, and to protect the liberties of Englishmen.
St. Paul's also set itself in opposition to the authority of the Pope;
and when a Papal legate sought to enthrone himself in St. Paul's, he
was openly resisted by Cantelupe, Bishop of Worcester. Boniface of
Savoy, "the handsome Archbishop," brought with him fashions strange
enough to English folk. His armed retainers pillaged the markets, and
he felled to the ground, with his own fist, the prior of St.
Bartholomew, Smithfield, who presumed to oppose his visitation. He
came to St. Paul's to demand first-fruits from the Bishop of London,
but deemed it advisable to wear armour beneath his robes. He found the
gates of the Cathedral closed against him; but he fared better than
two canons of the Papal party, who were killed by the citizens a few
years later when they attempted to enter St. Paul's. London was
aroused by these Italian priests, and the citizens at length besieged
Lambeth Palace and drove the obnoxious archbishop beyond seas.
Again and again the tocsin sounded, as St. Paul's bell rang clear and
loud, and the citizens seized their weapons and formed their
battalions beneath the shadow of the great church. Now it was to help
Simon de Montfort against the king; now to seize the person of the
obnoxious Queen Eleanor, who was trying to escape by water from the
Tower to Windsor, and who was rescued from their hands by the Bishop
of London, and found refuge in his palace. Now the favourites of
Edward II. excited their rage, especially the Bishop of Exeter, the
king's regent, who dared to ask the Lord Mayor for the keys of the
city, and paid for his temerity with his life.
An incident which shows the attachment of the people to their church
and bishop occurred in the reign of the third Edward. Wycliffe was
summoned by Bishop Courtenay to appear before a great council at St.
Paul's. But the reformer did not come alone; to the surprise of his
accusers he arrived attended by a large following of friends, among
whom were John of Gaunt and Lord Percy. These powerful supporters of
Wycliffe attacked the bishop with angry words.
News was flashed among the citizens that John of Gaunt had threatened
their bishop and vowed to drag him out of the church by the hair. They
gathered together in angry crowds, and would have slain the duke and
sacked his palace, the Savoy, in the Strand, if the bishop had not
interfered on behalf of his enemy. Wycliffe and Lollardism did not
then find much favour with the people of London.
There were reformers within the Church who were quite as eager to
correct abuses as those outside the fold. Among these was Bishop
Braybroke of London, who lived in the time of Edward IV. He contended
for the sanctity of the sacred building, inveighed against the
practice of using it as an exchange, of playing at ball within the
precincts or within the church, and of shooting the pigeons which then
as now found sanctuary at St. Paul's.
The chronicles of the Cathedral tell the story of the troublous times
of the Wars of the Roses. We see Henry IV. pretending bitter sorrow
for the death of the murdered Richard, and covering with cloths of
gold the body, which had been exhibited to the people in St. Paul's.
We see Henry V. returning in triumph from the French wars, riding in
state to the Cathedral, attended by "the mayor and brethren of the
city companies, wearing red gowns with hoods of red and white,
well-mounted and gorgeously horsed, with rich collars and great
chains, rejoicing at his victorious returne." Then came Henry VI.,
attended by the bishops, the dean and canons, to make his offering at
the altar. Here the false Duke of York took his oath on the Blessed
Sacrament to be loyal to the king. Here the rival houses swore to lay
aside their differences, and to live at peace. But a few years later
saw the new king, Edward IV., at St. Paul's, attended by great
Warwick, the king-maker, with his bodyguard of 800 men-at-arms.
Strange were the changes of fortune in those days. Soon St. Paul's
saw the exhibition of the dead body of the king-maker, and not long
afterwards that of the poor dethroned Henry, and Richard came in state
here amid the shouts of the populace. After the defeat of the
conspiracy of Lambert Simnel, Henry VII. celebrated a joyous
thanksgiving in the Cathedral, and here, amid much rejoicing, the
youthful marriage of Prince Arthur with Catherine of Arragon took
place, when the conduits at Cheapside and on the west of the Cathedral
ran with wine, and the bells rang joyfully, and all wished happiness
to the Royal children whose wedded life was destined to be so brief.
THE REFORMATION AND AFTER
At the dawn of the Reformation period we will pause in order to try
and realise what kind of scenes took place daily in the great
Cathedral, and what vast numbers were employed on the staff. The
members of the Cathedral body in the year 1450 included the
following:--The Bishop, the Dean, the four Archdeacons, the Treasurer,
the Precentor, the Chancellor, thirty greater Canons, twelve lesser
Canons, about fifty Chaplains or Chantry-Priests and thirty Vicars. Of
inferior rank to these were the Sacrist, the three Vergers, the
Succentor, the Master of the Singing School, the Master of the Grammar
School, the Almoner and his four Vergers, the Servitors, the Surveyor,
the twelve Scribes, the Book Transcriber, the Bookbinder, the
Chamberlain, the Rent-collector, the Baker, the Brewer, the
Singing-men and Choir Boys, of whom priests were made, the Bedesmen
and the poor folk. In addition to these must be added the servants of
all these officers--the brewer, who brewed in the year 1286, 67,814
gallons, must have employed a good many; the baker, who ovened every
year 40,000 loaves, or every day a 100, large and small; the sextons,
grave-diggers, gardeners, bell-ringers, makers and menders of the
ecclesiastical robes, cleaners and sweepers, carpenters, masons,
painters, carvers and gilders. One can very well understand that the
Church of St. Paul alone found a livelihood for thousands.
The inventory of church goods belonging to the Cathedral in 1245
exists, and is worth studying. It enumerates sixteen chalices, five of
gold and the rest of silver-gilt. A chalice of Greek work had lost its
paten, but retained its reed (_calamus_), a relic of the time when
the deacon carried the chalice to the people, and each one drank of
its hallowed contents through a long narrow pipe, which was usually
fastened on a pivot to the bottom of the cup of the chalice. Amongst
other curiosities of the inventory are three _poma_, or hollow balls
of silver, so contrived as to hold hot water or charcoal embers for
the warming of the hands of the celebrant during mass.
Of shrines and relics we have already spoken. There were three
episcopal staves, and also a precentor staff of ivory with silver-gilt
and jewelled enrichments, and a _baculus stultorum_ for use at the
profane travesty called the feast of fools. Among the mitres were two
for the boy-bishop's use on St. Nicholas Day. There were thirty-seven
magnificent copes, and forty-four others, and thirty-four specially
fine chasubles.
The inventory of 1402 supplies some curious information as to the
manner in which the numerous and costly vestments were arranged when
not in use. In the treasury, on the west, stood a wardrobe,
_armariolum_, in which were twenty-four _perticæ_, pegs, or rods, or
frames, from which the copes and chasubles could be suspended, one
_pertica_ holding from three to six copes. The vestments were arranged
according to colour. Three other wardrobes were also stored with
goodly vestments, and there were twenty-six in daily use. The total is
179 copes, fifty-one chasubles and ninety-two tunicles, and the
colours were red, purple, black, white, green, yellow, blue, red mixed
with blue.
We have remarked that St. Paul's was the centre of the social life of
the people in olden days, which led to some abuses.
Francis Osborn says, "It was the fashion in those days, and did so
continue until these, for the principal gentry, lords and courtiers,
and men of all professions, to meet in St. Paul's by eleven of the
clock, and walk in the middle aisle till twelve, and after dinner from
three to six, during which time they discoursed of business, others of
news."
Shakespeare represents Falstaff in _Henry V._ as having "bought
Bardolph in Paul's"; and Dekker thus speaks of the desecration of the
sanctuary, "At one time in one and the same rank, yea, foot by foot,
elbow by elbow, shall you see walking the knight, the gull, the
gallant, the upstart, the gentleman, the clown, the captain, the
apple-squire, the lawyer, the usurer, the citizen, the bankrout, the
scholar, the beggar, the doctor, the idiot, the ruffian, the cheat,
the Puritan, the cut-throat, highman, lowman and thief; of all trades
and professions some; of all countries some. Thus while Devotion
kneels at her prayers, doth Profanation walk under her nose in
contempt of Religion."
Here lawyers received their clients; here men sought service; here
usurers met their victims, and the tombs and font were mightily
convenient for counters for the exchanges of money and the transaction
of bargains, and the rattle of gold and silver was constantly heard
amidst the loud talking of the crowd.
Gallants enter the Cathedral wearing spurs, having just left their
steeds at "The Bell and Savage," and are immediately besieged by the
choristers, who have the right of demanding spur-money from anyone
entering the building wearing spurs.
Nor are the fair sex absent, and Paul's Walk was used as a convenient
place for assignations. Old plays are full of references to this
practice.
Later on the nave was nothing but a public thoroughfare, where men
tramped carrying baskets of bread and fish, flesh and fruit, vessels
of ale, sacks of coal, and even dead mules and horses and other
beasts. Hucksters and pedlars sold their wares.
Duke Humphrey's tomb was the great meeting-place of all beggars and
low rascals, and they euphemistically called their gathering "a dining
with Duke Humphrey."
Much more could be written of this assembly of all sorts and
conditions of men, but we have said enough to show that the Cathedral
had suffered greatly from desecration and abuse. Indeed, an old writer
in 1561 declared that the burning of the steeple in that year was a
judgment for the scenes of profanation which were daily witnessed in
old St. Paul's. He writes, "No place has been more abused than Paul's
has been, nor more against the receiving of Christ's Gospel; wherefore
it is more marvel that God spared it so long, rather than He overthrew
it now. From the top of the spire at coronations, or at other solemn
triumphs, some for vain glory used to throw themselves down by a rope,
and so killed themselves vainly to please other men's eyes," and much
more to the same effect.
But the strictness of the worthy divine did not altogether cure the
evils against which he railed. Eight years later the first great
lottery was drawn before the west doors. There were 10,000 lots at ten
shillings each, and day and night from January 11 to May 6 the drawing
went on. The prizes were pieces of plate, and the profits were devoted
to the repair of the havens of England. So profitable was the lottery
that another took place here in 1586, the prizes being some valuable
armour.
At the dawn of the Reformation we see Henry VIII. in all the pomp and
glory of mediæval pageantry riding in state to the Cathedral to be
adorned with a cap of maintenance and a sword presented to him by the
Pope. There was no sign yet of any breach of alliance between the
Roman Pontiff and him whom he honoured with the title of "Defender of
the Faith." Lollardism in spite of some burnings spread, and the
western tower of the Cathedral earned the name of the Lollards' Tower,
as several were imprisoned there.