and the Citizens, when they rebuilt and inhabited their houses. The
former enacted many salutary clauses for the preservation of health,
and would have done more, had not the publick rejected that which was
for their benefit; those who preferred high habitations and narrow dark
streets had them. It is only to be lamented, that we are compelled
to suffer for their folly. These errors are now frequently partially
removed by the exertion of the Corporation of London; but a complete
reformation is impossible.
It is a fallacy to say that the New River now exclusively _prevents_
infectious disorders by the distribution of its water through the
City, as it is well known to have been introduced to the houses very
many years before 1665. It is to the improved dwellings composed of
brick, the wainscot or papered walls, the high cielings, the boarded
floors, and large windows, and cleanliness, that we are indebted for
the general preservation of health since 1666. From that auspicious
year the very existence of the natives of London improved; their bodies
moved in a large space of pure air; and, finding every thing clean and
new around them, they determined to keep them so. Previously-unknown
luxuries and improvements in furniture were suggested; and a man of
moderate fortune saw his house vie with, nay superior to, the old
palaces of his governors. When he paced his streets, he felt the
genial Western breeze pass him, rich with the perfumes of the country,
instead of the stench described by Erasmus; and looking upward, he
beheld the beautiful blue of the air, variegated with fleecy clouds,
in place of projecting black beams and plaster, obscured by vapour
and smoke. But there were other blessings, which he thought not of,
that are attained by his successors; and those I shall proceed to
describe chronologically, after introducing the assertions of M. de
Grosley on the state of London with respect to Cleanliness _circa_
1750. That gentleman observes, in his Tour to London, that "the plate,
hearth-stones (generally marble), moveables, apartments, doors, stairs,
the very street-doors, their locks, and the large brass knockers
(almost exclusively iron at present), are every day washed, scowered,
or rubbed. Even in lodging-houses, the middle of the stairs is often
covered with carpeting, to prevent them from being soiled. All the
apartments in the house have mats or carpets; and the use of them has
been adopted some years since by the French."
The streets of London must have been dangerously dark during the winter
nights before it was burnt: lanterns with candles were very sparingly
scattered, nor was light much better distributed even in the new
streets previous to the last century.
Globular lamps were introduced by Michael Cole, who obtained a patent
July 1708; a copy of the docquet for which follows: "A grant unto
Michael Cole, gent. of the sole use and benefit in England and Ireland
of his invention of a _new kind of Light_, composed of one entire glass
of a globular shape, with a lamp, which will give a clearer and more
certain light from all parts thereof, without any dark shadows or what
else may be confounding or troublesome to the sight, than any other
Lamps that have hitherto been in use: To hold to the said Michael Cole,
his executors, administrators, and assigns, during the term of fourteen
years; with a proviso, that the said invention shall not before the
determination of the term of twenty-one years (which commenced June
24, 1694) be used within the City of London, or the liberties thereof,
to the prejudice of the proprietors of the public glass lights called
_Convex lights, now used_ in the said City and liberties thereof; and
such other provisos, prohibitions, and clauses are inserted, as were
directed by warrant under her Majesty's Royal sign manual. Subscribed
by Mr. Solicitor General.
"JOHN WOODESON,
_Dep. to Sir_ GEORGE PIERS, _Bart._"
Cole first exhibited his Globe Lamp at the door of the St. James's
Coffee-house in 1709, and attended there to answer queries relating to
it. He afterwards offered to dispose of his patent for the benefit of
this Kingdom, as he resided in Ireland.
The ensuing report was made September 17, 1736, by Alderman Alsop
and Godschall, and eight Common Council-men, appointed a Committee
to consider in what manner the Act of Parliament "for the better
enlightening the streets of London" might be put in execution.
"There were 1287 houses under the rent of 10_l. per annum_; 4741
of 10_l._ and under 20_l._; 3045 of 20_l._ and under 30_l._; 1849
of 30_l._ and under 40_l._; and 3092 of 40_l._ and upwards. In all
14,014 houses, then inhabited and chargeable; which were about 400
less than the Committee imagined. The number of lamps required was
4200, exclusive of those wanted for public buildings and void places,
fixed at twenty-five yards distance on each side of the way in the high
streets, and at thirty-five in lesser streets, lanes, &c. The several
Wards of the City agreed for the lighting them at an average of 41_s.
per annum per_ lamp, at which rate the expence of the 4200 amounted
to 8610_l._ The fixing of those on posts and irons, averaged at 14_s._
6_d._ each, 3045_l._; total expence 5628_l._ The rates to supply
which sum were fixed as follows: Houses under 10_l._--3_s._ 6_d.
per annum_; under 20_l._--7_s._ 6_d._; under 30_l._--8_s._; under
40_l._--9_s._ 6_d._; upwards of 40_l._--12_s._"
The above particulars will be sufficient to explain the manner in which
London and Westminster is now lighted. The only variety that has since
occurred is, the converting of the shape of the lamps from a globular
form to that of a bell, and affixing them to the iron railing of the
area and houses. Several attempts to introduce strong reflectors have
failed, as it has been uniformly found that they injure and confuse the
sight.
The shop-keepers of London are of infinite service to the rest of the
inhabitants by their liberal use of the Patent Lamp, to shew their
commodities during the long evenings of winter. The parish lamps
glimmer above them, and are hardly distinguishable before ten o'clock.
The first essential improvement of London, after the re-building of
the City, was the filling of Fleet-ditch, and forming the streets
where the market is situated; and the next, the continuation of the
plan to Blackfriars-bridge. The latter was suggested by the success of
Westminster-bridge; and the removal of the houses and widening of the
arches of London-bridge proceeded from perceiving the neat appearance
and superior accommodations of the new ones.
The following is a list of "Openings to be made in the City of London,
pursuant to an Act of Parliament" passed in the Session of 1760.
"In Aldersgate Ward. A passage twenty feet wide, from the
East side of Aldersgate-street (opposite to Little Britain)
to the West of Noble-street, opposite to Oat-lane; and
through Wood-street, opposite to Love-lane.
In Aldgate Ward. A passage fifty feet wide, from the Mason's
shop facing Crutched-friars, in a direct line to the Minories.
A passage, twenty-five feet wide, through
Northumberland-alley, into Crutched-friars.
In Bishopsgate Ward. A passage, twenty-five feet wide,
through Angel-court, in Bishopsgate-street, into Little St.
Helen's.
A passage, twenty feet wide, from Broad-street, through
Union-court, into Bishopsgate-street.
In Coleman-street Ward. A passage, fifty feet wide, from
Tokenhouse-yard to London-wall.
In Farringdon Ward Within. A passage through Cock-alley, on
Ludgate-hill, opposite to the Old Bailey, forty feet wide,
into Blackfriars.
A passage, twenty-five feet wide, from Butcher-hall-lane,
into Little-Britain.
In Farringdon Ward Without. A passage, thirty feet wide, in
the middle of Snow-hill, to the Fleet-market.
_The following passages are to be improved and enlarged._
In Aldgate Ward. The East side of Billiter-lane, to enlarge
the passage thirty feet.
The East end of Leadenhall-street, to be thirty-five feet
wide.
Part of the houses on the East side of Poor Jewry-lane,
beginning at the North side of the Horse and Trumpet, and
extending to Gould-square, to range in a line with that
end of the lane next to Aldgate; the passage to be made
thirty-five feet wide.
In Broad-street Ward. The House to be pulled down at
the West end of the buildings between Cornhill and
Threadneedle-street, opposite to the South end of
Princes-street, and the ground laid into the street.
Houses to be pulled down on the South side of
Threadneedle-street, extending from the house
before-mentioned Eastward, till that part of the street
opposite to the Bank gates; and the passage there enlarged to
thirty-five feet in width.
Coleman-street Ward. One house on the N. E. corner of
the Old Jewry, and another house at the S. W. corner of
Coleman-street, and the ground laid into the street.
Cordwainers' Ward. The house at the N. E. corner of
Trinity-lane, near the Dog Tavern, and the ground laid into
the street.
In Cornhill Ward. The house at the West end of the buildings
between Cornhill and Lombard-street, and the ground laid into
the street.
In Cripplegate Ward Within. The houses which project
forwards at the West end of Silver-street, from the end of
Monkwell-street, quite through into Aldersgate-street, to
make a street forty feet wide.
The house at the corner of Aldermanbury, facing Milk-street,
and the ground laid into the street.
In Farringdon Ward Within. The Tin-shop and the Trunk-maker's
house, at the S. W. corner of Cheapside, leading into St.
Paul's Church-yard, and the ground laid into the street.
Such part of the houses in Creed-lane as are necessary to
widen the passage to thirty feet.
In Farringdon Ward Without. All the houses in Middle-row
between the paved alley, adjoining to St. Sepulchre's church
and Giltspur-street, from the North end quite through to the
South end, facing Hart-street, and the ground laid into the
street.
All the houses in Middle-row, between the Great and Little
Old Bailey, from the North end facing Hart-street, to the
Baptist's Head at the South end, facing the Great Old Bailey,
and the ground laid into the street.
The shops under St. Dunstan's church in Fleet-street, and the
ground laid into the street.
In Langbourn Ward. Such part of the houses at the end of
Mark-lane, next to Fenchurch-street, as will make the passage
there thirty feet wide.
Such part of the houses at the East end of Lombard-street, as
will make the passage there thirty feet wide.
In Portsoken Ward. The house at the N. E. corner of
Houndsditch, adjoining to the church-yard, and the ground
laid into the street.
In Tower Ward. Such part of the houses on St. Dunstan's-hill,
adjoining to the George Alehouse, and opposite to the Chain,
and such part of the warehouses opposite to the end of St.
Dunstan's Church, as will make the passage thirty feet wide.
The house on the N. W. corner of Great Tower-street, and
also the house on the S. E. corner of Little Tower-street,
occupied by Messrs. Julon and Lidner, to make a convenient
passage.
The house in Mark-lane which adjoins to All-hallows Staining,
and projects twelve feet before the other houses, to make
it range in a line with the other houses, and enlarge the
passage.
In Vintry Ward. The houses on the North side of Thames-street
which reach from Elbow-lane to College-hill, and also those
on the South side of the said street which reach from
Vintner's-hall to Bull-wharf-lane, in order to make the
street forty feet wide.
The house at the corner of Tower-royal, facing College-hill,
to be pulled down, and the ground laid into the street.
In Walbrook Ward. The house at the N. E. corner of
Bucklersbury, which projects before the other buildings.
In Bishopsgate Ward. The two houses between New Broad-street
and New Broad-street-buildings."
The removal of all the City Gates promoted a better circulation of air;
and London Wall gave place near Moorgate to a fine new street.
It has ever been the practice of the London builders to erect houses
at the least possible expence, because their tenures are almost
exclusively leasehold. Hence it is that the Editors of the Newspapers
of the last century were compelled from time to time to notice the
horrid effects produced by the fall of those frail buildings. I am
fully convinced, that not less than one hundred lives have been lost
in this way between 1700 and 1807; and that at least three times as
many persons were maimed. The publick justly condemned the supineness
of their officials in not preventing occurrences of this description;
and the compilers of the London Chronicle say in October 1760, "In one
of the morning papers is a complaint of the present method of letting
leases of the City Lands, and other estates of public bodies. It is
not sufficient to build Bridges; it is not enough to widen and improve
Streets and Passages: no, we should examine farther. Consider what the
Houses are: they are all superannuated; the City is worn out; the major
part of the houses have stood much longer than they should, _many years
longer than they were built for_; and, instead of being rebuilt as the
leases expire, or any thing done to aggrandise and render the City
conspicuous, equal to the other improvements, they are advertised again
on repairing leases, and are so shamefully propped up from time to time
that the City must come to decay: nay, it will be even hazardous to
walk the streets."
Though the latter assertion rather exceeds the truth, it will
be recollected that Houghton-street Clare-market, Wapping, the
neighbourhood of Bishopsgate-street, and Billingsgate, have very
recently proved that fatal consequences attend the parsimony of those
landlords who repair when they should rebuild; and I think I may
safely declare that there are at this moment at least 3000 houses in
a dangerous state of ruin within London and Westminster, which may
hereafter make their owners repent the indulgence of their avarice.
He that observes the present miserable representatives of bricks and
_dirt_ mortar constantly ascending in tottering piles around him,
cannot wonder that houses sometimes fall with their own weight ere
they are finished; and he must anticipate future consequences. The
Legislature wisely enacted regulations to prevent the communication of
accidental fires; but more remains to be done--let them ordain that
bricks and mortar should hereafter be of a certain standard, under a
heavy fine and imprisonment; and that surveyors should be appointed to
order the demolition of new houses built in opposition to the clauses
of the Act.
The reader who _admires_ adulteration may find enough of it thus
noticed in the London Chronicle, June 2, 1764. This article evinces
that I am not the first person who has reprobated the London
brick-maker. "We have long complained of _alum_ bread, of small beer
brewed with _treacle and water_, and porter without _malt or hops_.
No one is now ignorant, that half of the best rums and brandies are
but _malt spirits_; and that the quantity of port-wine which is drunk
in England, by the help of _Alicant_ and _other mixtures_, more than
doubly exceeds what is annually imported. And every family at this time
is lamenting the unmerciful roguery of forestallers and engrossers,
and those who increase the price upon all adulterated commodities,
without any feeling for the consumer. But we take not the least notice
of a practice that seems more hurtful to the community than any of the
above--_the present method of making bricks_.
"If you go to the remains of London Wall, or examine any old brick
buildings, you will find it more difficult to pull it down, than it
was for the architect to raise it; but let any person attend to the
continual accounts given in the papers _of the number of half-built
houses that tumble down before they can be finished_, and he will
tremble for those who are to inhabit the many piles of new buildings
that are daily rising in this metropolis. When we consider the practice
among some of the brick-makers about the town, we shall not wonder
at this consequence, though we must shudder at the evil. The increase
of buildings has increased the demand, and consequently the price of
bricks. The demand for bricks has raised the price of brick-earth
so greatly, that the makers are tempted to mix _the slop of the
streets_, _ashes_, _scavengers dirt_, and every thing that will make
the brick-earth or clay go as far as possible. It is said the price
of this brick-earth is more than doubled within these two or three
years. The Scavenger, unwilling to be behind with the Landholder, has
doubled the price of ashes, trebled the price of cinders, and charges
a considerable price for the filth, mud, and what they call the slop
of the streets. This slop makes near one half of the composition that
is to raise the enormous and very numerous buildings which are to
unite London with Highgate, Bromley, Rumford, and Brentford, within
these five years; unless, what seems very possible, the bricklayers,
carpenters, and masons, with all their labourers and workmen, are
overwhelmed in the ruins of their own buildings before the plan is
finished. The Legislature has provided for our safety against the
roguery of the Builders; but, unless the materials of which the bricks
are made shall be taken into consideration, London may shortly resemble
the City of Lisbon, without the intervention of an Earthquake."
When the Corporation of London had determined in 1766 to remove many of
the inconveniences and obstructions then common in the City of London,
it appeared in evidence that the Streets were generally badly paved,
very dirty, and not sufficiently lighted; and that the Signs prevented
a free circulation of the air and view of the Streets, while the Posts
contributed to impede the passenger. Nor were the Penthouses less
injurious; those, loaded with flower-pots, often occasioned dangerous
hurts by the fall of the latter; and the watering of the plants in them
contributed, with the projecting spouts, in rainy weather, to sluice
the Citizen, who at the same time steered his undulating or zig-zag way
through wheelbarrows and bawling owners. Another comfort peculiar to
this period was the ambition of Shop-keepers, who encroached upon the
footways by bow-windows. When an example was set, the whole fraternity,
fired with emulation, thrust each new one beyond his neighbour. Such
were the impediments to walking so recently as 1766! The reader may
imagine how a Londoner must have felt during a high wind and shower; a
thousand signs swinging on rusty hinges above him, threatening ruin to
his person at every step, and a thousand spouts pouring cascades at his
luckless head.
The extravagant use of Signs had been complained of early in the
century, when they were described as very large, very fine with
gilding and carving, and very absurd. _Golden_ perriwigs, saws, axes,
razors, trees, lancets, knives, salmon, cheese, blacks' heads with gilt
hair, half-moons, sugar-loaves, and Westphalia hams, were repeated
without mercy from the Borough to Clerkenwell, and from Whitechapel
to the Haymarket; but a person who knew what they were much better
than myself thus described them under the signature of A. B. in one of
the newspapers of 1764: "In the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV.
the inhabitants of the City of Paris were ever complaining how sick
the City was, and how fast they died: upon which, Louis consulted the
Medical people what could be the cause of it: and they all agreed, that
it was owing to the largeness of the Signs, which choaked up the free
circulating air, which ever administers to health; upon which an edict
was published, that no Sign should be more than 18 inches by 12, and
all the iron perhaps may weigh four or five pounds; and I do suppose
that some of the Sign-irons in London weigh four or five hundred, and
some a great deal more. Soon after this edict was published, it was
declared by the inhabitants, that they found a sensible difference in
their healths. The general run of their streets are a little wider than
Paternoster-row; a few much wider, and a great many not so wide.
"Now, when the wind blows hard upon a very broad Sign, with a great
weight of Iron on the front of the house, I often wonder, that the
fronts do not fall oftener than they do. In the year 1718, the front of
a house, opposite Bride-lane in Fleet-street, fell down, and killed two
young ladies, a cobler, and the King's Jeweller. This you may depend
upon as a truth; many others were maimed, and a few more were killed,
I cannot say how many: this was done by the wind blowing hard against
the large Sign and Iron. These gorgeous Signs are to draw in customers;
but, if they were all upon a footing, and our signs and callings were
wrote as they are in the Strand, would not every body be the better for
it, and a great deal of money be saved into the bargain? First, they
would save their money; secondly, render the City more healthy; and
thirdly, prevent people's brains being knocked out," &c. &c.
The suggestions of this and other good citizens were at length attended
to; and the Court of Common Council appointed a Committee, in the same
year, to consider of some method by which they might accomplish the
removal of Signs and Water-spouts, and cause the former to be affixed
to the fronts of houses flat against the wall, and the latter to be so
contrived as to discharge their contents without annoying passengers.
The gentlemen commissioned for the above purpose were directed besides
to arrange a plan for inscribing the names of streets, lanes, and
alleys, on their corners.
Soon after the above appointment, the Newspaper-writers frequently
noticed the alteration of Signs; and the inhabitants of Shug-lane
appear to have led the way in putting the Act of Parliament in
execution, sanctioning the general improvement of London and
Westminster. In addition to the names of streets placed on the corners,
the Nobility then introduced brass plates or door-plates with their
names engraved on them; and the numbering of the houses completed this
portion of the great work of amendment.
The streets of London were extremely inconvenient before this period,
as the kennels were in the midst, and the stones of the pavements
round; nor was there, as at present, a smooth footway for the
pedestrian. A meeting of the Commissioners for the re-paving of London
was held in June 1766, when Aberdeen granite was adopted, and Charles
Whitworth, Esq. contracted for the performance; but the Commissioners
for paving the squares, streets, and lanes of Westminster, had issued
the following intimation in March 1763:
"Notice is hereby given, that they intend new paving
Parliament-street, Charing Cross, Cockspur-street, and
Pall Mall; for which purpose the following Proposals are
advertised, _viz._
"1st, For furnishing Edinburgh stones, or stones of the like
quality, for the carriage-way of the said streets, at the
Quarry, according to the dimensions following, _viz._ of four
and five inches thick (and a few of six for the kennels), and
not less than nine inches deep, and for delivering the same
at the places where they may be most conveniently shipped.
2dly, For freight and delivery at such wharf or wharfs, near
Westminster-bridge, as the Commissioners shall direct.
3dly, For carriage from the said wharf or wharfs to the said
streets, or any of them, as the Surveyor shall direct.
4thly, For paving of the carriage-way of the said streets
with the said stones, supplying the best Thames sand,
labourers, and all incidental charges (except only removing
the old pavement, and leveling the ground), according to such
dimensions as shall be set out by the Surveyor, and under
such inspection of the Surveyor as is directed by the Act of
Parliament.
5thly, For paving the footways of the said streets with the
best Purbeck pavement, and a curb of Purbeck or Moor stone
twelve inches broad, and seven inches thick, leveling the
ground, finding all materials and workmanship, according to
such levels and such dimensions as shall be directed and
appointed by the Surveyor, and under his inspection, as the
said Act directs; as likewise for re-laying such part of the
old footways as shall be directed by the Surveyor.