PROVENÇAL INFLUENCE IN GERMANY, FRANCE AND ENGLAND
Provençal influence in Germany is apparent in the lyric poetry of the
minnesingers. Of these, two schools existed, connected geographically
with two great rivers. The earlier, the Austro-Bavarian school,
flourished in the valley of the Danube: the later minnesingers form the
Rhine school. In the latter case, Provençal influence is not disputed;
but the question whether the Austro-Bavarian school was exempt from it,
has given rise to considerable discussion. The truth seems to be, that
the earliest existing texts representing this school do show traces of
Provençal influence; but there was certainly a primitive native poetry
in these Danube districts which had reached an advanced stage of
development before Provençal influence affected it. Austria undoubtedly
came into touch with this influence at an early date. The Danube valley
was a high road for the armies of crusaders; another route led from
Northern Italy to Vienna, by which Peire Vidal probably found his way to
Hungary. At the same time, though Provençal influence was strong, the [128]
Middle High German lyric rarely relapsed into mere imitation or
translation of troubadour productions. Dietmar von Aist, one of the
earliest minnesingers, who flourished in the latter half of the twelfth
century has, for instance, the Provençal _alba_ theme. Two lovers part
at daybreak, when awakened by a bird on the linden: if the theme is
Provençal, the simplicity of the poet's treatment is extremely fresh and
natural. This difference is further apparent in the attitude of
minnesingers and troubadours towards the conception of "love." The
minnesong is the literary expression of the social convention known as
"Frauendienst," the term "minne" connoting the code which prescribed the
nature of the relation existing between the lover and his lady; the
dominant principle was a reverence for womanhood as such, and in this
respect the German minnesang is inspired by a less selfish spirit than
the Provençal troubadour poetry. Typical of the difference is Walter von
der Vogelweide's--
Swer guotes wîbes minne hât,
der schamt sich aller missetât.
("He who has a good woman's love is ashamed of every ill deed"),
compared with Bernart de Ventadour's--
Non es meravilha s'ieu chan [129]
Melhs de nul autre chantador
Car plus trai mos cors ves Amor
E melhs sui faitz a son coman.
("It is no wonder if I sing better than any other singer, for my heart
draws nearer to love and I am better made for love's command.") The
troubadour _amor_, especially in its Italian development, eventually
attained the moral power of the _minne_; but in its early stages, it was
a personal and selfish influence. The stanza form and rime distribution
of the minnesinger poems continually betray Provençal influence: the
principle of tripartition is constantly followed and the arrangement of
rimes is often a repetition of that adopted in troubadour stanzas.
Friedrich von Hausen, the Count Rudolf von Fenis, Heinrich von Morungen
and others sometimes translate almost literally from troubadour poetry,
though these imitations do not justify the lines of Uhland.
In den Thälern der Provence ist der Minnesang entsprossen,
Kind des Frühlings und der Minne, holder, inniger Genossen.
Northern France, the home of epic poetry, also possessed an indigenous
lyric poetry, including spring and dance songs, pastorals, romances, and
"chansons de toile." Provençal influence here was inevitable. It is
apparent in the form and content of poems, in the attempt to remodel [130]
Provençal poems by altering the words to French forms, and by the fact
that Provençal poems are found in MS. collections of French lyrics.
Provençal poetry first became known in Northern France from the East, by
means of the crusaders and not, as might be expected, by
intercommunication in the centre of the country. The centre of Provençal
influence in Northern France seems to have been the court of Eleanor of
Poitiers the wife of Henry II. of England and the court of her daughter,
Marie of Champagne. Here knights and ladies attempted to form a legal
code governing love affairs, of which a Latin edition exists in the _De
arte honeste amandi_ of André le Chapelain, written at the outset of the
thirteenth century. Well-known troubadours such as Bertran de Born and
Bernart de Ventadour visited Eleanor's court and the theory of courtly
love found its way into epic poetry in the hands of Chrétien de Troyes.
The Provençal school in Northern France began during the latter half of
the twelfth century. The _chanson_ properly so called is naturally most
strongly represented: but the Provençal forms, the _tençon_ (Prov.
_tenso_) and a variant of it, the _jeu-parti_ (Prov. _jocs partitz_ or
_partimens_) are also found, especially the latter. This was so called,
because the opener of the debate proposed two alternatives to his
interlocutor, of which the latter could choose for support either that [131]
he preferred, the proposer taking the other contrary proposition: the
contestants often left the decision in an _envoi_ to one or more
arbitrators by common consent. Misinterpretation of the language of
these _envois_ gave rise to the legend concerning the "courts of love,"
as we have stated in a previous chapter. One of the earliest
representatives of this school was Conon de Bethune, born in 1155; he
took part in the Crusades of 1189 and 1199. Blondel de Nesles, Gace
Brulé and the Châtelain de Coucy are also well-known names belonging to
the twelfth century. Thibaut IV., Count of Champagne and King of Navarre
(1201-1253), shared in the Albigeois crusade and thus helped in the
destruction of the poetry which he imitated. One of the poems attributed
to him by Dante (_De Vulg. El._) belongs to Gace Brulé; his love affair
with Blanche of Castile is probably legendary. Several crusade songs are
attributed to Thibaut among some thirty poems of the kind that remain to
us from the output of this school. These crusade poems exhibit the
characteristics of their Provençal models: there are exhortations to
take the cross in the form of versified sermons; there are also love
poems which depict the poet's mind divided between his duty as a
crusader and his reluctance to leave his lady; or we find the lady [132]
bewailing her lover's departure, or again, lady and lover lament their
approaching separation in alternate stanzas. There is more real feeling
in some of these poems than is apparent in the ordinary chanson of the
Northern French courtly school: the following stanzas are from a poem by
Guiot de Dijon,[34] the lament of a lady for her absent lover--
Chanterai por mon corage
Que je vueill reconforter
Car avec mon grant damage
Ne quier morir n'afoler,
Quant de la terra sauvage
Ne voi nului retorner
Ou cil est qui m'assoage
Le cuer, quant j'en oi parler
Dex, quant crieront outree,
Sire, aidiés au pelerin
Por cui sui espoentee,
Car felon sunt Sarrazin.
De ce sui bone atente
Que je son homage pris,
E quant la douce ore vente
Qui vient de cel douz païs
Ou cil est qui m'atalente,
Volontiers i tor mon vis:
Adont m'est vis que jel sente
Par desoz mon mantel gris.
Dex, etc.
"I will sing for my heart which I will comfort, for in spite of my great
loss I do not wish to die, and yet I see no one return from the wild [133]
land where he is who calms my heart when I hear mention of him. God!
when they cry Outre (a pilgrim marching cry), Lord help the pilgrim for
whom I tremble, for wicked are the Saracens.
"From this fact have I confidence, that I have received his vows and
when the gentle breeze blows which comes from the sweet country where he
is whom I desire, readily do I turn my face thither: then I think I feel
him beneath my grey mantle."
The idea in the second stanza quoted is borrowed from Bernard de
Ventadour--
Quant la douss' aura venta
Deves vostre païs.
Vejaire m'es qu'eu senta
Un ven de Paradis.
The greater part of this poetry repeats, in another language, the
well-worn mannerisms of the troubadours: we find the usual introductory
references to the spring or winter seasons, the wounding glances of
ladies' eyes, the tyranny of love, the reluctance to be released from
his chains and so forth, decked out with complications of stanza form
and rime-distribution. Dialectical subtlety is not absent, and
occasionally some glow of natural feeling may be perceived; but that
school in general was careful to avoid the vulgarity of unpremeditated
emotion and appealed only to a restricted class of the initiated.
Changes in the constitution and customs of society brought this school [134]
to an end at the close of the thirteenth century, and a new period of
lyric poetry was introduced by Guillaume de Machaut and Eustache
Deschamps.
Of the troubadours in England there is little to be said. The subject
has hitherto received but scanty attention. Richard Coeur de Lion was as
much French as English; his mother, Queen Eleanor, as we have seen, was
Southern French by birth and a patroness of troubadours. Richard
followed her example; his praises are repeated by many troubadours. What
truth there may be in Roger of Hovenden's statement concerning his
motives cannot be said; "Hic ad augmentum et famam sui nominis
emendicata carmina et rhythmos adulatorios comparabat et de regno
Francorum cantores et joculatores muneribus allexerat ut de illo
canerent in plateis, et jam dicebatur ubique, quod non erat talis in
orbe." The manuscripts have preserved two poems attributed to him, one
referring to a difference with the Dauphin of Auvergne, Robert I.
(1169-1234), the other a lament describing his feelings during his
imprisonment in Germany (1192-1194). Both are in French though a
Provençal verson is extant of the latter. The story of Richard's
discovery by Blondel is pure fiction.[35]
From the time of Henry II. to that of Edward I. England was in constant [135]
communication with Central and Southern France and a considerable number
of Provençals visited England at different times and especially in the
reign of Henry III.; Bernard de Ventadour, Marcabrun and Savaric de
Mauleon are mentioned among them. Though opportunity was thus provided
for the entry of Provençal influence during the period when a general
stimulus was given to lyric poetry throughout Western Europe, Norman
French was the literary language of England during the earlier part of
that age and it was not until the second half of the thirteenth century
that English lyric poetry appeared. Nevertheless, traces of Provençal
influence are unmistakably apparent in this Middle English lyric poetry.
But even before this time Anglo-Latin and Anglo-Norman literature was
similarly affected. William of Malmesbury says that the Norman Thomas,
Archbishop of York, the opponent of Anselm wrote religious songs in
imitation of those performed by jongleurs; "si quis in auditu ejus arte
joculatoria aliquid vocale sonaret, statim illud in divinas laudes
effigiabat." These were possibly hymns to the Virgin. There remain also
political poems written against John and Henry III. which may be fairly
called _sirventes_, Latin disputes, such as those Inter Aquam et Vinum,
Inter Cor et Oculum, De Phillide et Flora, are constructed upon the [136]
principles of the _tenso_ or _partimen_. The use of equivocal and
"derivative" rimes as they are called in the Leys d'Amors is seen in the
following Anglo-Norman stanzas. A poem with similar rimes and grouped in
the same order is attributed to the Countess of Die, the Provençal
_trobairitz_; but this, as M. Paul Meyer points out, may be pure
coincidence.[36]
En lo sesoun qe l'erbe poynt
E reverdist la matinée
E sil oysel chauntent a poynt
En temps d'avril en la ramée,
Lores est ma dolur dublée
Que jeo sui en si dure poynt
Que jeo n'en ai de joie poynt,
Tant me greve la destinée.
Murnes et pensif m'en depart,
Que trop me greve la partie;
Si n'en puis aler cele part,
Que ele n'eyt a sa partie
Mon quor tot enter saunz partie.
E puis qu'el ad le men saunz part,
E jeo n'oy unkes del soen part
A moi est dure la partie.
"In the season when the grass springs and the morn is green and the
birds sing exultantly in April time in the branches, then is my grief
doubled, for I am in so hard a case that I have no joy at all, so heavy
is my fate upon me.
"Sad and thoughtful I depart, for the case is too grievous for me: yet [137]
I cannot go thither, for she has in her power my heart whole and
undivided. And since she has mine undivided and I never have any part of
hers, the division is a hard one to me."
This influence was continued in Middle English lyric poetry. These
lyrics are often lacking in polish; the tendency to use alliteration as
an ornament has nothing to do with such occasional troubadour examples
of the trick as may be found in Peire d'Auvergne. Sometimes a refrain of
distinctly popular origin is added to a stanza of courtly and artificial
character. Generally, however, there is a freshness and vigour in these
poems which may be vainly sought in the products of continental
decadence. But Provençal influence, whether exerted directly or
indirectly through the Northern French lyric school, is plainly visible
in many cases. Of the lyrics found in the important MS. Harleian
2253,[37] "Alysoun" has the same rime scheme as a poem by Gaucelm
Faidit: it opens with the conventional appeal to spring; the poet's
feelings deprive him of sleep. The Fair Maid of Ribbesdale has a
rime-scheme almost identical with that shown by one of Raimbaut
d'Aurenga's poems; the description of the lady's beauty recalls many
troubadour formulae: the concluding lines--
He myhte sayen pat crist hym seze, [138]
pat myhte nyhtes neh hyre leze,
heuene he hevede here.
are a troubadour commonplace. Many other cases might be quoted. Hymns
and songs to the Virgin exhibit the same characteristics of form. The
few Provençal words which became English are interesting;[38] colander
or cullender (now a vegetable strainer; Prov. colador), funnel,
puncheon, rack, spigot, league, noose are directly derived from
Provençal and not through Northern French and are words connected with
shipping and the wine trade, the port for which was Bordeaux.
In the year 1323 a society was formed in Toulouse of seven troubadours,
the "sobregaya companhia," for the purpose of preserving and encouraging
lyric poetry (lo gay saber). The middle class of Toulouse seems at all
times to have felt an interest in poetry and had already produced such
well-known troubadours as Aimeric de Pegulhan, Peire Vidal and Guillem
Figueira. The society offered an annual prize of a golden violet for the
best _chanso_; other prizes were added at a later date for the best
dance song and the best _sirventes_. Competitors found that songs to the
Virgin were given the preference and she eventually became the one
subject of these prize competitions. The society produced a grammatical [139]
work, the Leys d'Amors, under the name of its president, Guillem
Molinier, in 1356,[39] no doubt for the reference and instruction of
intending competitors. The competition produced a few admirable poems,
but anxiety to preserve the old troubadour style resulted generally in
dry and stilted compositions. The _Academie des jeux floraux_[40]
altered the character of the competition by admitting French poems after
1694. At the end of the sixteenth century, Provençal poetry underwent a
revival; in our own time, poets such as Jasmin, Aubanel, Roumanille and
above all, Mistral, have raised their language from a patois to a
literary power. The work of the félibres has been to synthetise the best
elements of the various local dialects and to create a literary language
by a process not wholly dissimilar to that described at the outset of
this book. But the old troubadour spirit had died long before; it had
accomplished its share in the history of European literature and had
given an impulse to the development of lyric poetry, the effects of
which are perceptible even at the present day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTES
LITERARY HISTORY
F. Diez, _Leben und Werke der Troubadours_, 2nd edit., re-edited by K.
Bartsch, Leipsic, 1882. _Die Poesie der Troubadours_, 2nd edit.,
re-edited by K. Bartsch, Leipsic, 1883.
K. Bartsch, _Grundriss zur Geschichte der provenzalischen Literatur_,
Elberfeld, 1872. A new edition of this indispensable work is in
preparation by Prof. A. Pillet of Breslau. The first part of the book
contains a sketch of Provençal literature, and a list of manuscripts.
The second part gives a list of the troubadours in alphabetical order,
with the lyric poems attributed to each troubadour. The first line of
each poem is quoted and followed by a list of the MSS. in which it is
found. Modern editors have generally agreed to follow these lists in
referring to troubadour lyrics: e.g. B. Gr., 202, 4 refers to the fourth
lyric (in alphabetical order) of Guillem Ademar, who is no. 202 in
Bartsch's list.
A list of corrections to this list is given by Gröber in Böhmer's
_Romanische Studien_, vol. ii. 1875-77, Strassburg. In vol. ix. of the
same is Gröbers' study of troubadour MSS. and the relations between
them.
A. Stimming, _Provenzaliscke Literatur in Gröber's Grundriss der
Romanischen Philologie_, Strassburg, 1888, vol. ii. part ii. contains
useful bibliographical notices.
A. Restori, _Letteratura provenzale_, Milan, 1891 (_Manuali Hoepli_), an
excellent little work.
A. Jeanroy, _Les origines de la poésie lyrique en France_, 2nd edit.,
Paris, 1904.
J. Anglade, _Les troubadours_, Paris, 1908, an excellent and trustworthy
work, in popular style, with a good bibliography.
J. H. Smith, _The troubadours at Home_, 2 vols., New York, 1899;
popularises scientific knowledge by impressions of travel in Southern
France, photographs, and historical imagination: generally stimulating
and suggestive, Most histories of French literature devote some space to
Provençal; e.g. Suchier & Birch-Hirschfeld, _Geschichte der
französischen Litteratur_, Leipsic, 1900. The works of Millot and
Fauriel are now somewhat antiquated. _Trobador Poets_, Barbara Smythe,
London, 1911, contains an introduction and translations from various
troubadours.
DICTIONARIES AND GRAMMARS
F. Raynouard, _Lexique roman_, 6 vols., Paris, 1838-1844,
supplemented by.
E. Levy, _Provenzalisches supplement-Wörterbuch_, Leipsic, 1894, not
yet completed, but indispensable.
E. Levy, _Petit dictionnaire provençal-français_, Heidelberg, 1908.
J. B. Roquefort, _Glossaire de la langue romane_, 3 vols., Paris, 1820.
W. Meyer-Lübke, _Grammaire des langues romanes_, French translation of
the German, Paris, 1905.
C. H. Grandgent, _An outline of the phonology and morphology of old
Provençal_, Boston, 1905.
H. Suchier, _Die französiche und provenzalische Sprache_ in Gröber's
_Grundriss_. A French translation, _Le Français et le Provençal_, Paris,
1891.
TEXTS
The following chrestomathies contain tables of grammatical forms (except
in the case of Bartsch) texts and vocabularies.
_Altprovenzalisches Elementarbuch_, O. Schultz-Gora, Heidelberg, 1906,
an excellent work for beginners.
_Provenzalische Chrestomathie_, C. Appel, Leipsic, 1907, 3rd edit.
_Manualetto provenzale_, V. Crescini, Padua, 1905, 2nd edit.
_Chrestomathie provençal_, K. Bartsch, re-edited by Koschwitz, Marburg,
1904.
The following editions of individual troubadours have been published.
Alegret. _Annales du Midi_, no. 74.
Arnaut Daniel. U. A. Canello, Halle, 1883.
Bernart de Rovenac. G. Borsdorff, Erlangen, 1907.
Bartolomeo Zorzi. E. Levy, Halle, 1883.
Bertran d'Alamanon. J. Salverda de Grave, Toulouse, 1902 (_Bibliothèque
Méridionale_).
Bertran de Born. A. Thomas, Toulouse, 1888 (_Bibliothèque Méridionale_).
Bertran de Born. A. Stimming, Halle, 1892 (and in the _Romanischz
Bibliothek_, Leipsic).
Blacatz. O. Soltau, Leipsic, 1890.
Cercamon. Dr Dejeanne, Toulouse, 1905 (_Annales du Midi_, vol. xvii.).
Elias de Barjols. Stronski, Paris, 1906 (_Bibliothèque Méridionale_
vi.).
Folquet de Marselha. Stronski, Cracow, 1911.
Folquet de Romans. Zenker (_Romanische Bibliothek_).
Gavaudan. A. Jeanroy, _Romania_, xxxiv., p. 497.
Guillaume IX. Comte de Poitiers. A. Jeanroy, Toulouse, 1905.
Guillem Anelier de Toulouse. M. Gisi, Solothurn, 1877.
Guillem de Cabestanh. F. Hüffer, Berlin, 1869.
Guillem Figueira. E. Levy, Berlin, 1880.
Guillem de Montanhagol. J. Coulet, _Bibliothèque Méridionale_, iv.,
Toulouse.
Guiraut de Bornelh. A. Kolsen, Berlin, 1894 and 1911.
Guiraut d'Espanha. P. Savi-Lopez. _Studj mediaevali_, Fasc. 3, Turin,
1905.
Guiraut Riquier, Étude sur, etc. J. Anglade, Paris, 1905.
Jaufre Rudel. A Stimming, Kiel, 1873.
Marcabrun. Dr Dejeanne. _Bibliothèque Méridionale_, 1910.
Marcoat. Dr Dejeanne, Toulouse, 1903 (_Annales du Midi_, xv.).
Monk of Montaudon. E. Philippson, Halle, 1873; O. Klein, Marburg, 1885.
N' At de Mons. Bernhard. _Altfranzösische Bibliothek, Heilbronn_.
Paulet de Marselha. E. Levy, Paris, 1882.
Peire d'Alvernhe (d'Auvergne). R. Zenker, Rostock, 1900.
Peire Vidal. K. Bartsch, Berlin, 1857 (an edition by J. Anglade is about
to appear).
Peire Rogier. C. Appel, Berlin, 1892.
Perdigon. H.J. Chaytor, _Annales du Midi_, xxi.
Pons de Capdoill. M. Napolski, Halle, 1879.
Raimbaut de Vaqueiras. O. Schultz, Halle, 1893.
Raimon de Miraval, Etude sur, etc. P. Andraud, Paris, 1902.
Sordel. De Lollis, Halle, 1896 (_Romanische Bibliothek_).
Numerous separate pieces have been published in the various periodicals
concerned with Romance philology, as also have diplomatic copies of
several MSS. Of these periodicals, the most important for Provençal are
_Romania, les Annales du Midi, Zeitschrift der Romanischen Philologie,
Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen, Romanische Studien, Studj
di filologia romanza, Revue des langues romanes_. Mahn's _Gedichte der
Troubadours_, 4 vols., Berlin, 1856-71, contains diplomatic copies of
MSS.; his _Werke der Troubadours_, Berlin, 1846-55, contains reprints
from Raynouard, _Choix des poésies originales des Troubadours_, Paris,
1816. Suchier, _Denkmäler provenzalischer Sprache_, Halle, 1883; Appel,
_Provenzalische Inedita_, Leipsic, 1890; Chabaneau, _Poesies inédites
des Troubadours du Perigord_, Paris, 1885; P. Meyer, _Les derniers
troubadours de Provence_, Paris, 1871, should be mentioned. Most of the
pieces in the _Parnasse Occitanien_, Toulouse, 1819, are to be found
better edited elsewhere. Other pieces are to be found in various
_Festschriften_ and occasional or private publications, too numerous to
be detailed here. C. Chabaneau, _Les biographies des Troubadours_,
Toulouse, 1885 (part of the _Histoire générale de Languedoc_) is full of
valuable information. The biographies have been translated by I.
Farnell, _Lives of the Troubadours_, London, 1896.
NOTES
CHAPTER I
1. See maps at the end of Gröber's _Grundriss_, vol. i.
2. _De Vulg. El._ I., 8: alii oc, alii oïl, alii si affirmando
loquuntur, and _Vita Nuova_, xxv. Dante also knew the term provincialis.
3. Boethius. F. Hündgen, Oppeln, 1884. For Sainte Foy d'Agen, see
_Romania_ xxxi., p, 177 ff.
4. P. Meyer in _Romania_ v., p. 257. Bédier, _Les chansons de Croisade_,
Paris, 1909, p. 16.
5. See P. Maus, _Peire Cardenals Strophenbau_, Marburg, 1884.
6. See Jeanroy, Origines, etc.
CHAPTER II
7. Provençal has also the feminine _joia_ with the general meaning of
"delight."
8. See Stimming's article in Gröber's _Grundriss_.
9. Raynouard, _Les Troubadours et les Cours d'Amour_, Paris, 1817; see
also Diez, _Über die Minnehöfe_, Berlin, 1825. Pio Rajna, _Le Corti
d'Amore_, Milan, 1890.
10. _Annales du Midi_, xix. p. 364.
11. _Die provenzalische Tenzone_, R. Zenker, Leipsic, 1888.
CHAPTER III
12. Girart de Roussillon, translation by P. Meyer, Paris, 1884: see also
_Romania_, vii. Diplomatic copies of the MSS. in _Romanische Studien_ V.
_Le Roman de Flamenca_, P. Meyer, Paris, 1901.
13. J. B. Beck, _Die Melodien der Troubadours_, Strasburg, 1908. _La
Musique des Troubadours_, Paris, 1910, by the same author, who there
promised a selection of songs harmonized for performance: this has not
yet appeared. See also _Quatre poésies de Marcabrun_, Jeanroy, Dejeanne
and Aubry, Paris, 1904, with texts, music, and translations.
14. Schindler, _Die Kreuzzüge in der altprovenzalischen und
mittelhochdeutschen lyrik._, Dresden, 1889. K. Lewent, _Das
altprovenzalische Kreuzlied_, Berlin, 1905.
15. A. Pillet, _Studien zur Pastourelle_, Breslau, 1902. Römer, _Die
volkstümlichen Dichtungsarten der altprovenzalischen Lyrik_, Marburg,
1884.
16. _Quae judicia de litteris fecerint Provinciales_. P. Andraud, Paris,
1902.
17. From _Si'm sentis fizels amics_, quoted by Dante, _De Vulg. El._ i. 9.
CHAPTER IV
18. "Paubre motz"; also interpreted as "scanty words," i.e. poems with
short lines. On Jaufre Rudel in literature, see a lecture by Carducci,
Bologna 1888. The latest theory of his mysterious love is that she was
the Virgin Mary; see C. Appel, _Archiv für das Studium der neueren
Sprachen_, cvii. 3-4.
19. Mahn, _Gedichte_, no. 707. An edition of Bernard de Ventadour's
poems is in preparation by Prof. Appel.
20. _Cp._ Dante, _Par._ xx. 73.
CHAPTER V
21. Dante, _De Vulg. El._ ii. 2.
22. "Il Provenzale," _Conv._ iv. 11.
23. _Purg._ xxvi.
24. On his family see Stronski, _Folquet de Marseille_, p. 15 and
159-172.
25. See G. Paris, _La Littérature française au moyen âge_, § 128.
CHAPTER VI
26. The best short account of the Albigenses is to be found in vol. i.
of H.C. Lea's _Histoire de L'Inquisition au moyen âge_, Paris, 1903.
This, the French translation, is superior to the English edition as it
contains the author's last corrections, and a number of bibliographical
notes. The Adoptionist theory is stated in the introduction to F.C.
Conybeare's _Key of Truth_, Oxford, 1908. The _Chanson de la Croisade
Albigeoise_, P. Meyer, Paris, 1875, 2 vols., is indispensable to
students of the subject. In these works will be found much of the
extensive bibliography of the heresy and crusade.
27. Eckbertus, _Serm. adv. Catharos, Migne, Patr. Lat._, tom. 193. p.
73.
28. _Cf._ Milman, _Latin Christianity_, Book IX. chap. viii. p. 85.
29. On religious lyric poetry, see Lowinsky, _Zeitschrift für
französische Sprache und Litteratur_, xx. p. 163 ff., and the
bibliographical note to Stimming's article in Gröber's _Grundriss_, vol.
ii. part ii. § 32.
CHAPTER VII
Most histories of Italian literature deal with this subject. See
Gaspary's _Italian Literature to the death of Dante_: H. Oelsner, Bohn's
Libraries. See also the chapter, _La poésie française en Italie_ in
Jeanroy's _Origines_. For Dante, see _Storia letteraria d'Italia,
scritta di una società di professori_, Milan, vol. iii., Dante, by
Zingarelli. _The Troubadours of Dante_, Chaytor, Oxford, 1902. Useful
are A. Thomas, _Francesco da Barberino et la littérature provençale en
Italie au moyen âge_, Paris, 1883. O. Schultz, _Die Lebensverhältnisse
der Italienischen Trobadors_, Berlin, 1883.
30. Schultz, _Die Briefe des Trobadors Raimbaut de Vaqueiras an Bonifaz
I._, Halle, 1883.
31. Zingarelli, _Intorno a due Trovatori in Italia_, Florence, 1899.
CHAPTER VIII
Milà y Fontañals, _Los trovadores en España_, Barcelona, 1861, remains
the best work on the subject. On Portugal, the article in Gröber's
_Grundriss_, ii. 2, p. 129, by C. Michaelis de Vasconcellos and Th.
Braga is admirable: see the bibliographical references there given and
the introduction to R. Lang, _Das Liederbuch des Königs Denis von
Portugal_, Halle, 1894.
32. The date of this poem is disputed, see Dr Dejeanne's edition of
Marcabrun, p. 235.
33. F. Guessard, _Grammaires Provençales_, Paris, 1858; E. Stengel, _Die
beiden ältesten prov. Gram._, Marburg, 1878.
CHAPTER IX
Troubadour influence in Germany is discussed at greater or less length
in most histories of German literature. See Jeanroy, _Origines_, p. 270
ff. A. Lüderitz, _Die Liebestheorien der Provenzalen bei den
Minnesingern der Slauferzeit_, Literarhistorische Forschungen, Berlin,
1904.
For France. A. Jeanroy, _De nostratibus medii aevi poetis qui primum
Aquitaniae carmina imitati sint_, Paris, 1889.
For England. Schofield, _English Literature from the Norman Conquest to
Chaucer_, London, 1906. O. Heider, _Untersuchungen zur mittelenglischen
erotischen Lyrik_, Halle, 1905. A. Brandl, _Spielmann's verhältnisse in
frühmittelenglischer Zeit_, Sitzungs-berichte der Königl. preuss.,
Akademie, 1910.
34. Bédier, _Chansons de Croisade_, Paris, 1909, p. 112.
35. See introduction to Leo Wiese, _Die Lieder des Blondel de Nesle_,
Dresden, 1904, p. 19 ff.
36. _Romania_, viii. p. 370.
37. K. Böddeker, _Altenglische Dichtungen des MS. Harl._ 2253, Berlin,
1878.
38. Modern Language Review, vol. 1. p. 285; vol. ii. p. 60, articles by
Prof. Skeat.
39. P. Leinig, _Grammatik der provenzalischen Leys d'amors verglichen
mit der Sprache der Troubadours_, Breslau, 1890. M. Gatien. Arnoult,
_Monuments de la littérature romane_, Toulouse, 1841.
40. _Histoire critique de l'Académie des Jeux Floraux_, by F. de Gélis
from the origin to the 17th century will appear shortly in the
Bibliothèque meridionale, Toulouse. Useful anthologies of modern
Provençal are _Flourilège prouvençau_, Toulon, 1909: _Antologia
provenzale_, E Portal, Milan, Hoepli, 1911 (Manuali Hoepli).
INDEX.
Alamanon, Bertran d', 104
_Alba_, 33, 128
Albigeois, 13, 23, 75, ff.
Alcuin, 7
Alfonso II. of Aragon, 51, 59, 69, 74, 110, 113
Alfonso VIII. of Castile, 110, 113, 114
Alfonso X. of Castile, 118, 124
André le Chapelain, 19, 130
Aquino, Rinaldo d', 82
Aquitaine, 42
Arabs, 8, 105
Aragon, 54, 71, 110
---- Pedro II. of, 78, 83, 113
Arles, 5
Aurenga, Raimbaut d', 35, 85, 64
Auvergne, 3
---- Dauphin of, 134
---- Peire d', 36, 67, 70, 135
Azalais, 71, 79
_Ballata_, 33
Barral, 71, 79
Belenoi, Aimeric de, 118
Bethune, Conon de, 131
Bezaudun, Raimon Vidal of, 115, 122
Béziers, 50, 78
Blacatz, 103
Born, Bertran de, 13, 57, 111, 130
Bornelh, Giraut de, 23, 35, 37, 53, 68, 86, 113
Brunei, Uc, 113
Cabestanh, Guillem de, 73
Cabreira, Guiraut de, 122
Caen, Raoul de, 6
Cairel, Elias, 12
Calanso, Guiraut de, 115, 122
Calha, Albertet, 12
Calvo, Bonifacio, 100, 118
Carcassonne, 78
Cardenal, Peire, 11, 82, 84, 92, 117, 118
Castile, 54, 71
---- Sancho III. of, 67
Catalonia, 3, 5, 71, 109, 121 ff.
Cercamon, 9, 42
Chabaneau, 20
_Chanso_, 23
Cigala, Lanfranc, 39, 100, 116
Circ, Uc de San, 100, 113
Corbiac, Peire de, 93
_Comjat_, 23
Compostella, 109, 124
Courts of Love, 19
Cunizza, 101
Daniel, Arnaut, 55
Dante, 24, 53, 55, 57, 63, 104, 108, 131
Denis, 124
_Descort_, 33, 97
Die, Countess of, 11, 65
Dietmar von Aist, 128
Dominic, 77, 80
Ebles II., 46
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 42, 46, 59, 130
Escas Amanieu des, 121
_Escondig_, 33
Estampida, 33
Este, 95
Ezzelino III., 101
Faidit, Gaucelm, 99, 135
Ferdinand III. of Castile, 104, 116
Figueira, Guillem, 82, 138
Flamenca, 23
Florence, 100
Frederick II. of Sicily, 88, 105
Friedrich von Hausen, 129
Galicia, 123
_Gasson_, 3, 9, 115
Genoa, 78, 100
Gerona, Serveri de, 120
Guido delle Colonne, 106, 107
Guido Guinicelli, 106
Guiot de Dijon, 132
Hautefort, 60, 111
Henry II. of England, 47, 59, 63
Henry III. of England, 104, 117
Innocent III., 76, 77
Inquisition, 80
Isabella of Angoulême, 117
Jaime I. of Aragon, 85
Jaufre, Roman de, 23
Languedoc, 3
Lemosin, 5
Lentino, Jacopo da, 82
Leys d'Amors, 16, 23, 33, 138
Limousin, 3, 4, 8, 123
Louis VII. of France, 60, 69
Louis VIII. of France, 89
Lyons, 5, 77
Malaspina, Marquis of, 100
Malmesbury, William of, 41
Manfred II., 100, 102
Mantua, 101
Marcabrun, 35, 43, 68, 85, 110, 135
Mareuil, Arnaut de, 50, 53
Marseilles, 5, 10
---- Barral of 71, 79
---- Folquet of, 10, 13, 72, 78, 91
Marie of Champagne, 130
Marvejols, Bernard Sicart de, 84, 117, 118
Mauleon, Savaric de, 135
Minnesingers, 128
Miraval, Raímon de, 39, 83
Montanhagol, Guillem de, 117
Montaudon, Monk of, 11, 69, 79, 113
---- Beatrice of, 97
Montpelier, Germonde de, 89
---- William VII. of, 51, 79
Muret 78, 114
Music, 26 ff.
Narbonne, 5, 59, 67
Navarre, 54, 110
---- Guillem de Tudela of, 120
Nesles, Blondel de, 131, 134
Nostradamus, 19
Novara, 102
Orange, William IV. of, 96
_Partimen_, 130
_Pastorela_, 33
Pegulhan, Aimeric de, 99, 107, 114, 138
Perdigon, 11
Pisa, 100
_Planh_, 30
Poitou, 4
Poitiers, 6, 8
---- William of, 6, 41, 65, 90
Portugal, Denis of, 124
Provence, 3
---- Beatrice of, 102
Puegsibot, Gausbert de, 14
Puy, 69
Raynouard, 19
Richard Coeur de Lion, 55, 58, 69, 72, 134
Riquier, Guiraut, 92, 118
Rogier, Peire, 66
Rovenhac, Bernart de, 118
Roussillon, 3
---- Girart de, 22
Rudel, Jaufre, 23, 44
Rudolf, Count of Neuenberg, 82
Savoy, 96
_Serena_, 33
Simon de Montfort, 78
_Sirventes_, 30, 135
Sordello, 96, 101, 116
_Stanza_, 24, ff.
_Tenso_, 21, 31, 130
Thibaut IV. of Champagne, 131
Tor, Guillem de la, 100
Toronet, 79
Toulouse, 5, 13, 78, 80, 84, 138
---- N'At de Mons of, 117
---- Peire Raimon of, 113
---- Raimon V. of, 49, 50, 60, 67, 111
---- Raimon VI. of, 78, 80, 114
Tripoli, Countess of, 44
_Trobar clus_, 34
Turin, 96
Ussel, Gui d', 14
Vaqueiras, Raimbaut de, 96, 100
Vaudois, 76
Venice, 100
Ventadour, 11
---- Bernart of, 11, 13, 46, 68, 128, 130, 133, 135
Verona, 96
_Vers_, 23
Vidal, Peire, 71, 95, 97, 100, 112, 115, 127, 138
Virgin Mary, 15, 91
Zorzi, Bartolomeo, 100, 118