THE BATTLE OF MANILA.
Three centuries ago the power of Spain in the western hemisphere
covered a larger area than the foreign possessions of any other country
in Europe. And in the same year in which Cortes, by a romantic and
amazing military exploit, brought her the kingdom of Mexico, Magellan
discovered for her another rich empire in the Pacific, which she
governed, robbed, and oppressed for three hundred and seventy-seven
years, until she lost it--probably forever--one May morning, when an
American fleet sailed into the bay of Manila and won a victory as
complete and astonishing as that of Cortes. The greater part of the
reasons why such a victory was possible are indicated in the foregoing
pages, but the circumstances that gave occasion for it need
explanation.
[Illustration: Diagram of Manila Bay.]
Spain's misrule in her colonies finally produced in most of them a
chronic state of insurrection, and one after another they slipped from
her grasp. Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, the Argentine, Mexico, Louisiana,
Florida, and the greater part of the West Indies once were hers. She
ceded Louisiana to France in 1800, and Florida to the United States in
1819, and two years later Mexico achieved her independence. She still
had the rich islands of Cuba and Porto Rico in the West Indies, and the
Philippine group in the East.
Though there have been revolutions and counter revolutions in Spain
since the beginning of this century, the colonies have profited by none
of them. Whether the home government was republic or monarchy, it was
equally impressed with the idea that colonies were for plunder only. In
1848 the United States offered to buy Cuba for one hundred million
dollars, but the offer was indignantly rejected with the remark that
there was not gold enough in the world to buy that island from Spain.
Of the many insurrections there, the most serious were that which
lasted from 1868 to 1878, costing Spain a hundred thousand lives and
Cuba nearly sixty thousand, and that which broke out in 1895. In the
former of these, forty thousand prisoners who were captured by the
Spanish troops were deliberately put to death; and in the latter such
barbarous measures of repression were resorted to as subjected, not men
alone, but women and children, to the most cruel suffering. Meanwhile,
the United States Government was doing its utmost to enforce the laws
of neutrality, and a part of its navy was kept busy watching the coasts
and thwarting filibustering schemes, some of which were successful in
spite of them.
The feelings of horror excited among the American people by the
atrocities of the Spanish commander in Cuba began to demand that
somehow or other an end be put to them; and every comment on the great
powers of Europe for permitting the massacre of Armenians by the Turks,
suggested a parallel criticism in regard to the United States and Cuba.
A similar insurrection was in progress in the Philippine Islands. That
group is about two hundred miles from the coast of China. The largest
of them, Luzon, is about as large as the State of Ohio, and the next,
Mindanao, is almost as large; while the smallest are mere islets. There
are nearly two thousand in all. The total area is estimated at one
hundred and fourteen thousand square miles (about equal to the combined
areas of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland), and the
total population at seven million (about equal to that of the State of
New York). Of this population more than half are on the island of
Luzon. Here also is the capital city, Manila, with a population
(including suburbs) of a quarter of a million.
Some of the original tribes remain in the islands, but the present
inhabitants are largely Malay, with about ten thousand Spaniards and a
good many Chinese. The principal exports were hemp, sugar, rice,
coffee, cocoa, and tobacco. The annual revenue before the war was about
fourteen million dollars.
The capital is in latitude fifteen degrees north, about the same as
that of Porto Rico, and the southern point of Mindanao is within five
degrees of the equator. The group has a length, north and south, of
twelve hundred miles. The capital city contained a cathedral, a
university, and a palace for the governor. It is on a beautiful
land-locked harbor, twenty-six miles from the entrance. This entrance
is twelve miles wide, but it is divided by two islands, giving one
channel two miles wide and another five miles. The city is divided by
the River Pasig, the old town being on the south side, and the new town
on the north. The principal fortifications were at Cavité, on a
promontory seven miles south of the city, but there were others on
Corregidor Island, at the entrance.
In the autumn of 1897 Commodore Dewey's health was impaired--possibly
from indoor service--and he was advised to apply for sea duty to
restore it. Various accounts are given of his next assignment, not all
of which can be true, but on the last day of November he was made
commander of the Asiatic squadron, and a month later he hoisted his
flag on the Olympia at Nagasaki, Japan.
The growing feeling in the United States of horror and indignation at
the state of affairs in Cuba and the Philippines found free expression;
this roused the resentment of the Spanish Government and people, and it
became evident that not much was required to bring on a war between the
two nations. An occurrence most deplorable--whether caused by accident
or by design--in the harbor of Havana, in the night of February 14,
1898, brought on the crisis. This was the blowing up of the United
States battle ship Maine by a submarine mine or torpedo. The vessel was
completely wrecked, and two hundred and sixty-six lives were destroyed.
She was riding at anchor, on the spot selected for her by the Spanish
harbor authorities, and the greater part of the crew were asleep in
their hammocks. Probably nine tenths of the American people believed
that the ship had been blown up by treachery, but the moderation and
forbearance of both people and Government, while they waited for the
result of an official investigation, were remarkable. The Court of
Inquiry was composed of experienced officers of high rank, who sat
twenty-three days and employed divers and experts. Their unanimous
verdict, delivered on March 21st, declared that "the ship was destroyed
by the explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial
explosion of two or more of her forward magazines, and no evidence has
been obtainable fixing the responsibility for the destruction of the
Maine upon any person or persons." If it was proved that the wreck was
the work of a submarine mine, it was not difficult to guess where the
responsibility lay. Congress boldly attributed the disaster to "the
crime or the criminal negligence of the Spanish officials," and the
people generally agreed with Congress on this point.
Several members of Congress, notably Senator Proctor, formerly
Secretary of War, visited Cuba to see the condition of affairs for
themselves; and their reports, with the sickening details, increased
the determination of the American people to interfere in the cause of
humanity.
On March 9th, at the President's request, Congress passed unanimously a
bill appropriating fifty million dollars as an emergency fund to be
used for the national defense.
In a special message, April 11th, the President recited the facts, and
said: "The forcible intervention of the United States as a neutral to
stop the war, according to the large dictates of humanity, and
following many historical precedents where neighboring states have
interfered to check the hopeless sacrifice of life by internecine
conflicts beyond their borders, is justifiable on rational grounds."
Eight days later Congress passed a joint resolution declaring war. This
date, April 19th, was the anniversary of the first bloodshed in the
American Revolution (1775), and also of the first in the civil war
(1861). Measures for increasing both the army and the navy had been
taken already.
The United States naval squadron at Hong Kong included most of our
force in the Pacific and was well supplied; and the cruiser Baltimore,
with a large quantity of stores and ammunition, was added. It now
consisted of four protected cruisers--the Olympia, the Baltimore, the
Boston, and the Raleigh--from 3,000 to 5,870 tons each, and the
gunboats Concord and Petrel. It carried in all one hundred and
thirty-three guns. Its commander, George Dewey, was of the same age as
Farragut at the beginning of the civil war--sixty.
The Commodore had received provisional orders, instructing him, in case
of war with Spain, to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet in the
Pacific and take possession of the Philippine Islands; and he was now
promptly notified that he might carry them out. The British authorities
at Hong Kong gave notice that the fleet must leave that port at once,
in accordance with the laws of neutrality, and on April 27th Dewey
sailed for the Chinese port in Mirs Bay, and there completed his
preparations. One day later, having given the American consul time to
get away from Manila, he sailed for Subig Bay, thirty miles north of
that city, expecting to find the Spanish fleet there; but it had just
gone to Manila Bay, where it could have the protection of shore
batteries.
This fleet was commanded by Admiral Montojo. Its fighting vessels were
seven cruisers--the Reina Maria Cristina, the Castilla, the Velasco,
the Don Antonio de Ulloa, the Don Juan de Austria, the Isla de Cuba,
and the Isla de Luzon--the gunboats El Cano and General Lezo, and four
torpedo boats. The size of the cruisers was from 1,030 to 3,520 tons,
and the whole number of guns carried was one hundred and thirteen.
Some of the Spanish officials cherished certain delusions that appear
to have originated with the Spanish newspapers. One was, that if the
United States Government engaged in a foreign war the Southern States
would again secede. Another was, that the United States navy was
without discipline and without competent officers, and that the crews
were the mere riffraff of all nations, attracted thither by the liberal
pay. The Governor-General of the Philippines issued a boastful
proclamation in which he set forth these ideas, and added (more
truthfully, perhaps, than he suspected), "The struggle will be short
and decisive."
Whether justly or not, there were suspicions of the genuineness of the
neutrality to be observed by other powers, and an incident at Hong Kong
showed that Commodore Dewey was not to be trifled with in the discharge
of his duty. The German Emperor's brother, Prince Henry, called on
Dewey in the flagship, and said in the course of the conversation, "I
will send my ships to Manila, to see that you behave." "I shall be
delighted to have your Highness do so," Dewey answered, "but permit me
to caution you to keep your ships from between my guns and the enemy."
The American fleet followed the Spanish fleet to Manila Bay without
loss of time, and early Sunday morning, May 1st, the Spaniards were
astonished to see their enemy sailing in through the south channel.
When half the squadron had passed in, one of the land batteries opened
fire, but without effect. The ships continued at slow speed across the
great bay, looking for their antagonists, and found them in a smaller
bay--known as Baker Bay--anchored in line across its entrance, their
left and right protected by batteries on the inclosing peninsula and on
the mainland. Two mines were exploded ahead of the American flagship as
it advanced, but produced no damage. When the fleets were nearly
parallel with each other, the distance being two thousand to five
thousand yards, the Commodore said to the captain of the Olympia: "You
may fire when you are ready, Gridley," and at once the battle began.
Then was seen the advantage of training and target practice to the men
behind the guns. The American fire was remarkable for its precision,
and almost every shot told, while the Spanish fire, though vigorous,
was ineffective. The Spanish flagship attempted to leave the line and
go out to engage the Olympia at close range, but at once the entire
battery of the Olympia was concentrated on her, and she retreated to
her former place.
Following the example set by Du Pont at Hilton Head in 1861, the fleet
steamed steadily by and returned in a long ellipse, firing the
starboard broadsides as they went up, and the port broadsides as they
came back. This was repeated five times. The land batteries near the
city, as well as those on Cavité point, opened fire on the fleet, but
the Americans did not reply to them, their first business being with
the Spanish vessels. Dewey sent word to the Governor-General that
unless the city batteries ceased the city would be shelled, and this
had the desired effect. The terrific assault crippled the Spanish
vessels, set two of them on fire, and killed a great many men; but the
Spanish sailors were not so deficient in courage as in skill, and they
stood by their guns manfully.
Admiral Montojo says in his report: "The enemy shortened the distance
between us, and, rectifying his aim, covered us with a rain of
rapid-fire projectiles. At half past seven one shell completely
destroyed the steering-gear. I ordered to steer by hand while the
rudder was out of action. In the meanwhile another shell exploded on
the poop and put nine men out of action. Another carried away the
mizzen masthead, bringing down the flag and my ensign, which were
replaced immediately. A fresh shell exploded in the officers' cabin,
covering the hospital with blood and destroying the wounded who were
being treated there. Another exploded in the ammunition room astern,
filling the quarters with smoke and preventing the working of the hand
steering-gear. As it was impossible to control the fire, I had to flood
the magazine when the cartridges were beginning to explode. Amidships
several shells of smaller caliber went through the smokestack, and one
of the large ones penetrated the fire room, putting out of action one
master gunner and twelve men serving the guns. Another rendered useless
the starboard bow gun. While the fire astern increased, fire was
started forward by another shell which went through the hull and
exploded on the deck. The broadside guns, being undamaged, continued
firing until only one gunner and one seaman remained unhurt for working
them, as the guns' crews had been frequently called upon to substitute
those charged with steering, all of whom were out of action. The ship
being out of control, ... I gave the order to sink and abandon her
before the magazines should explode."
[Illustration: The battle of Manila. (By the courtesy of F. A.
Munsey.)]
All this was on the flagship, and the other Spanish vessels had been
used only a little less roughly when the American fleet drew off to
rest the men and have breakfast. How much the rest and refreshment were
needed can be realized only by those who themselves have been at work
in "the iron dens and caves" while the battle was raging overhead. A
stoker on the Olympia, giving an account of his experiences during the
fight, said: "The battle hatches were all battened down, and we were
shut in this little hole, the ventilating pipes being the only things
left open. The temperature was nearly up to two hundred degrees, and it
was so hot our hair was singed. There were several leaks in the steam
pipes, and the hissing steam made things worse. The clatter of the
engines and the roar of the furnaces made such a din it seemed one's
head would burst. When a man could stand it no longer he would put his
head under the air pipe for a moment. We could tell when our guns
opened fire by the way the ship shook. Once in a while one of the
apprentice boys would come to our ventilating pipe and shout down to
tell us what was going on."
Soon after eleven o'clock the American fleet returned to the attack,
and at this time the Spaniard's flagship and most of his other vessels
were in flames. At half past twelve the firing ceased, for the task was
substantially completed; one after another the hostile ships had been
sunk or driven ashore and burned, and the Americans had also poured
such a fire into the batteries at Cavité as compelled their surrender.
Dewey's fleet then anchored near the city, leaving the gunboat Petrel
to complete the destruction of the smaller Spanish boats that remained,
which was done.
Thus in about four hours of fighting the American had annihilated the
Spanish power in the Pacific and won a new empire. Admiral Montojo
reported his losses as three hundred and eighty-one men killed or
wounded. In the American fleet seven men were slightly wounded, but
none were killed. Some of the ships were struck by the Spanish shot,
but not one was seriously injured.
A pretty anecdote is told of Dewey after the battle. When the order had
been given to strip for action a powder boy lost his coat overboard. He
asked permission to go for it, but was refused. He went to the other
side of the ship, went over, and recovered his coat, and was then
placed under arrest for disobedience; and after the battle he was tried
and found guilty. When the sentence was submitted to the Commodore he
was curious to know why any one should risk his life for a coat, and
asked the boy. The little fellow, after some hesitation, told him it
was because his mother's picture was in the pocket. The tears came to
Dewey's eyes as he gave orders for his release, saying, "A boy that
loves his mother enough to risk his life for her picture can not be
kept in irons on this fleet."
While no American had any doubt of the result of a war with Spain, the
whole world was astonished at a battle that had completely destroyed
one fleet without serious damage to the other. It was evident that a
people who had produced John Paul Jones, Hull, Porter, Stewart,
Bainbridge, Perry, Decatur, Farragut, Worden, and Winslow had not yet
lost the power of producing worthy successors to those naval heroes.
If one wishes to muse on the historic achievements of sea power, it is
not necessary to visit Copenhagen or the Nile, or sit on the shore of
Trafalgar Bay; the Mississippi and Manila Bay will answer quite as
well. The United States navy has often been criticised at home and
sneered at abroad; but it is notable that in every war in which it has
engaged it has surpassed all expectations; and there is no reason to
suppose it will not continue to do so as long as the nation endures.
"When life's last sun gaes feebly down,
And death comes to their door,
When a' the world's a dream to them,
They'll go to sea no more."