[1] See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, _Gesch. des
hellenist. Zeitalters_, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, _Griech.
Gesch._, iii. [i.] 1-9; Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Gesch. d.
griech. Sprache_, p. 283 f.; O. Hoffmann, _Die Makedonen, ihre
Sprache u. ihr Volkstum_ (1906).
[2] "Ce sont les Tadjik de l'Afghanistan qui constituent les
trente-deux corps de metier, qui tiennent boutique, expedient les
marchandises, representent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et
commerciale de la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui
forment la classe lettree, et qui ont empeche les Afghans de retomber
dans la barbarie." (Reclus, _Nouvelle Geograph. univ._ ix. p. 71.)
HELLER, STEPHEN (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at
Pest on the 15th of May 1815. (Fetis's dictionary says 1814, but this is
almost certainly wrong.) He was at first intended for a lawyer, but at
nine years of age performed so successfully at a concert that he was
sent to Vienna to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and
from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a tour
through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg he had the good fortune
to be befriended when ill by a wealthy family, who practically adopted
him and gave him the opportunity to complete his musical education. In
1838 he went to Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin,
Berlioz and their set, among whom was Halle, throughout his life an
indefatigable performer of Heller's music. In 1849 he came to England
and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with Halle at the
Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation he had enjoyed among
cultivated amateurs for so many years, and was almost forgotten when he
died at Paris on the 14th of January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost
all of them published in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show
very startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not but
make them popular with players and listeners of all classes.
HELLESPONT (i.e. "Sea of Helle"; variously named in classical literature
[Greek: Hellespontos], [Greek: ho Helles pontos], _Hellespontum
Pelagus_, and _Fretum Hellesponticum_), the ancient name of the
Dardanelles (q.v.). It was so-called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas
(q.v.), who was drowned here. See ARGONAUTS.
HELLEVOETSLUIS, or HELVOETSLUIS, a fortified seaport in the province of
South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the south side of the island
of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm known as the Haringvliet, 5(1/2) m.
S. of Brielle. It has daily steamboat connexion with Rotterdam by the
Voornsche canal. Pop. (1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval
station, and possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a
naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the
communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman Catholic church and
a synagogue.
HELLIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Albacete, on
the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558. Hellin is built on the
outskirts of the low hills which line the left bank of the river Mundo.
It possesses the remains of an old Roman castle and a beautiful parish
church, the masonry and marble pavement at the entrance of which are
worthy of special notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and
saffron in abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse
cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the celebrated
mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junction between
the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm sulphurous springs in the
neighbouring village of Azaraque. Hellin was known to the Romans who
first exploited its sulphur as Illunum.
HELLO, ERNEST (1828-1885), French critic, was born at Treguier. He was
the son of a lawyer who held posts of great importance at Rennes and in
Paris, and was well educated at both places, but took to no profession
and resided much, for a time, in his father's country-house in Brittany.
A very strong Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited
by his countryman Renan's attitude to religious matters, and coming
under the influence of J. A. Barbey d'Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot, the
two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he started a
newspaper of his own, _Le Croise_, in 1859; but it only lasted two
years. He wrote, however, much in other papers. He had very bad health,
suffering apparently from spinal or bone disease. But he was fortunate
enough to meet with a wife, Zoe Berthier, who, ten years older than
himself, and a friend for some years before their marriage, became his
devoted nurse, and even brought upon herself abuse from gutter
journalists of the time for the care with which she guarded him. He died
in 1885. Hello's work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit.
His best-known book, _Physionomie de saints_ (1875), which has been
translated into English (1903) as _Studies in Saintship_, does not
display his qualities best. _Contes extraordinaires_, published not long
before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello is to
be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays, from _Renan,
l'Allemagne et l'atheisme_ (1861), through _L'Homme_ (1871) and _Les
Plateaux de la balance_ (1880), perhaps his chief book, to the
posthumously published _Le Siecle_. The peculiarity of his standpoint
and the originality and vigour of his handling make his studies, of
Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding importance as literary
"triangulations," results of object, subject and point of view.
HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was born at Amsterdam on
the 7th of March 1767. His early poems, _Night_ (1788) and _Socrates_
(1790), were tame and sentimental, but after 1805 he determined, in
company with his brother-in-law, Cornelis Loots (1765-1834), to rouse
national feeling by a burst of patriotic poetry. His _Poems_ (2 vols.,
1809-1810), but especially his great work _The Dutch Nation_, a poem in
six cantos (1812), created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success.
Helmers died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his
success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune
moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French oppression.
His posthumous poems were collected in 1815.
HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885), Russian geologist, was born at
Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of September (O.S.) 1803. He
received an engineering training and became major-general in the corps
of Mining Engineers. In 1837 he was appointed professor of geology in
the mining institute at St Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs
on the geology of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral
deposits of the country; and he wrote also some explanations to
accompany separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His
geological work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later
publications being _Studien uber die Wanderblocke und die
Diluvialgebilde Russlands_ (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were
published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died
at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885.
HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. _helme_, mod. _heaume_;
the English word is "helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from
the Teutonic base _hal_-, pre-Teut. _kal_-, to cover; cf. Lat. _celare_,
to hide, Eng. "hell," &c.), a defensive covering for the head. The
present article deals with the helmet during the middle ages down to the
close of the period when body armour was worn. For the helmet worn by
the Greeks and Romans see ARMS AND ARMOUR.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Casque with Neck-guard.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Casque with Nasal and Mail Hood.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Heaume, early 13th century.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Heaume, 15th century.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heaume, 15th century.]
The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the earlier
feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet which is
associated in the imagination with the knight in armour and the tourney.
It was a mere casque, a cap with or without additional safeguards for
the ears, the nape of the neck and the nose (fig. 1). By those warriors
who possessed the means to equip themselves fully, the casque was worn
over a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In manuscripts, &c., armoured
men are sometimes portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques,
basinets or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of
plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered with
mail or imbricated plates. The most advanced form of this early helmet
is the conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2), worn in
conjunction with the hood of mail. This is the typical helmet of the
11th-century warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux Tapestry. From
this point however (c. 1100) the evolution of war head-gear follows two
different paths for many years. On the one hand the simple casque easily
transformed itself into the _basinet_, originally a pointed iron
skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &c. On the other hand the knight in
armour, especially after the fashion of the tournament set in, found the
mere cap with nasal insufficient, and the _heaume_ (or "helmet")
gradually came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot
covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn underneath
it--or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and only put the
heaume on over it at the last moment before engaging. The earlier (12th
century) war heaumes are intended to be worn with the mail hood and have
nasals (fig. 3). Towards the end of the 13th century, however, the
basinet grew in size and strength, just as the casque had grown, and
began to challenge comparison with the heavy and clumsy heaume.
Thereupon the heaume became, by degrees, the special head-dress of the
tournament, and grew heavier, larger and more elaborate, while the
basinet, reinforced with camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of
the later, purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Basinets.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Salades or Sallets.]
The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights and
sergeants in the 14th century. Its development from the 10th-century cap
to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long snouted vizor and ample
drooping "camail," is shown in fig. 6, a, b, c and d, the two latter
showing the same helmet with vizor down and up. But the tendency set in
during the earlier years of the 15th century to make all parts of the
armour thicker. Chain "mail" gradually gave way to plate on the body and
the limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows, where
flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end replaced by
jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step was the discarding of
the "camail" and the introduction of the "armet." The latter will be
described later. Soon after the beginning of the 15th century the
high-crowned basinet gave place to the _salade_ or _sallet_, a helmet
with a low rounded crown and a long brim or neck-guard at the back. This
was the typical headpiece of the last half of the Hundred Years' War as
the vizored basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn
in a simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate form by
the knights and men-at-arms. The larger and heavier salades were also
often used instead of the heaume in tournaments. Here again, however,
there is a great difference between those worn by light armed men,
foot-soldiers and archers and those of the heavy cavalry. The former,
while possessing as a rule the bowl shape and the lip or brim of the
type, and always destitute of the conical point which is the
distinguishing mark of the basinet, are cut away in front of the face
(fig. 7 a). In some cases this was remedied in part by the addition of a
small pivoted vizor, which, however, could not protect the throat. In the
larger salades of the heavy cavalry the wide brim served to protect the
whole head, a slit being made in that part of the brim which came in
front of the eyes (in some examples the whole of the front part of the
brim was made movable). But the chin and neck, directly opposed to the
enemy's blows, were scarcely protected at all, and with these helmets a
large volant-piece or beaver (_mentonniere_)--usually a continuation of
the body armour up to the chin or even beyond--was worn for this purpose,
as shown in fig. 7 b. This arrangement combined, in a rough way, the
advantages of freedom of movement for the head with adequate protection
for the neck and lower part of the face. The _armet_, which came into use
about 1475-1500 and completely superseded the salade, realized these
requirements far better, and later at the zenith of the armourer's art
(about 1520) and throughout the period of the decline of armour it
remained the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for
tournament. It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles
and soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the suit
of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait or in
allegorical trophies, &c. The armet was a fairly close-fitting rounded
shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in front and complete
plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter replacing the mentonniere or
beaver. The armet was connected to the rest of the suit by the gorget,
which was usually of thin laminated steel plates. With a good armet and
gorget there was no weak point for the enemy's sword to attack, a roped
lower edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the
top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways, was
solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour had been
attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if tough, camail of the
vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in the succeeding period by the
salade and its grotesque mentonniere. As far as existing examples show,
the wide-brimmed salade itself first gave way to the more rounded armet,
the mentonniere being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use
(growing throughout the 15th century) of laminated armour for the joints
of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was applied
to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it was an easy
step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed the new head-dress.
Types of armets are shown in fig. 8.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Armets.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Burgonets.]
The _burgonet_, often confused with the armet, is the typical helmet of
the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In its simple form it was worn
by the foot and light cavalry--though the latter must not be held to
include the pistol-armed _chevaux-legers_ of the wars of religion, these
being clad in half-armour and vizored burgonet--and consisted of a
(generally rounded) cap with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a
neck-guard and earpieces. It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as
shown in the illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear
much in vogue during the 16th century are shown in figs. 10 and 11,
which represent the _morion_ and _cabasset_ respectively. Both these
were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much of their
popularity was due to the ease with which they were worn or put on and
off, for in the matter of protection they could not compare with the
burgonet, which in one form or another was used by cavalry (and often by
pikemen) up to the final disappearance of armour from the field of
battle about 1670. Fig. 9 b gives the general outline of richly
decorated 16th-century Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna.
The archetype of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss
infantry (fig. 9 a) at the epoch of Marignan (1515). This was probably
copied by them from their former Burgundian antagonists, whose connexion
with this helmet is sufficiently indicated by its name. The lower part
of the more elaborate burgonets worn by nobles and cavalrymen is often
formed into a complete covering for the ears, cheek and chin, and
connected closely with the gorget. They therefore resemble the armets
and have often been confused with them, but the distinguishing feature
of the burgonet is invariably the front peak. Various forms of vizor
were fitted to such helmets; these as a rule were either fixed bars
(fig. 9 c) or mere upward continuations of the chin piece. Often a nasal
was the only face protection (fig. 9 d, a Hungarian type). The latest
form of the burgonet used in active service is the familiar Cromwellian
cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the slight
vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the bottom.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Morion.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cabasset.]
The above are of course only the main types. Some writers class all
remaining examples either as casques or as "war-hats," the latter term
conveniently covering all those helmets which resemble in any way the
head-gear of civil life. For illustrations of many curiosities of this
sort, including the famous iron hat of King Charles I. of England, and
also for examples of Russian, Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the
reader is referred to pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin's _Arms and
Armour_ (English edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth,
worn by troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse
of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on considerations
of comfort and good appearance. From time to time, however, the
readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated by cavalrymen, and there
is much to be said in favour of this. The burgonet, which was the final
type of war helmet evolved by the old armourers, would certainly appear
to be by far the best head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and
indeed it is still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form,
by the German and other cuirassiers.
HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894), German philosopher
and man of science, was born on the 31st of August 1821 at Potsdam, near
Berlin. His father, Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy
in the gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal
descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in early life,
Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father at the same time
directed his thoughts to natural phenomena. He soon showed mathematical
powers, but these were not fostered by the careful training
mathematicians usually receive, and it may be said that in after years
his attention was directed to the higher mathematics mainly by force of
circumstances. As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow
him to follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the
Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced the
discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work, and from
1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year passed without
several important, and in some cases epoch-making, papers on scientific
subjects coming from his pen. He lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when
he became professor of physiology in Konigsberg. There he remained from
1849 to 1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In
1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in 1871 he was
called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To this professorship
was added in 1887 the post of director of the physico-technical
institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, and he held the two positions
together until his death on the 8th of September 1894.
His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science, including
physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, chemistry,
mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoretical
mechanics. At an early age he contributed to our knowledge of the causes
of putrefaction and fermentation. In physiological science he
investigated quantitatively the phenomena of animal heat, and he was one
of the earliest in the field of animal electricity. He studied the
nature of muscular contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements
on a smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity
of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and in the
sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the Physical Society of
Berlin a famous paper, _Uber die Erhaltung der Kraft_ (on the
conservation of force), which became one of the epoch-making papers of
the century; indeed, along with J. R. Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson
(Lord Kelvin), he may be regarded as one of the founders of the now
universally received law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851,
while he was lecturing on physiology at Konigsberg, saw the brilliant
invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of
inestimable value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to demonstrate
to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light sometimes seen in
the eyes of animals such as the cat. When the great ophthalmologist, A.
von Grafe, first saw the fundus of the living human eye, with its optic
disc and blood-vessels, his face flushed with excitement, and he cried,
"Helmholtz has unfolded to us a new world!" Helmholtz's contributions to
physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated the
optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention, the
ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline lens for near
and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation by which the
eye can focus within certain limits, discussed the phenomena of colour
vision, and gave a luminous account of the movements of the eyeballs so
as to secure single vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and
gave new force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name
of Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red, green and
violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation of
colour-blindness. His great work on _Physiological Optics_ (1856-1866)
is by far the most important book that has appeared on the physiology
and physics of vision. Equally distinguished were his labours in
physiological acoustics. He explained accurately the mechanism of the
bones of the ear, and he discussed the physiological action of the
cochlea on the principles of sympathetic vibration. Perhaps his greatest
contribution, however, was his attempt to account for our perception of
quality of tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that
quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the overtones or
harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the structure of a
musical tone. He also developed the theory of differential and of
summational tones. His work on _Sensations of Tone_ (1862) may well be
termed the _principia_ of physiological acoustics. He may also be said
to be the founder of the fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to
which it is asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance
of the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it, and
this independently of the pitch of the note on which the vowel is sung.
For the later years of his life his labours may be summed up under the
following heads: (1) On the conservation of energy; (2) on
hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics and theories of electricity; (4)
on meteorological physics; (5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract
principles of dynamics. In all these fields of labour he made important
contributions to science, and showed himself to be equally great as a
mathematician and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical
oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in the latter year he announced that
the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction was about
314,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that the passage of
electrical action involved time, and he also asserted that electrical
phenomena are brought about by changes in intervening non-conductors or
dielectric substances. This led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of
electro-dynamics, in which electrical impulses were assumed to be
transmitted through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first
to attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz put the
problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich Hertz, and the
latter finally gave an experimental demonstration of electromagnetic
waves, the "Hertzian waves," on which wireless telegraphy depends, and
the velocity of which is the same as that of light. The last
investigations of Helmholtz related to problems in theoretical
mechanics, more especially as to the relations of matter to the ether,
and as to the distribution of energy in mechanical systems. In
particular he explained the principle of least action, first advanced by
P. L. M. de Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of
quaternion fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic
problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the doctrine
of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded on experience,
hereditarily transmitted or acquired.
The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense. He was twice
married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom he had two
children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861, to Anna von Mohl,
of a Wurtemberg family of high social position. Two children were born
of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died in 1889, after showing in
experimental physics indications of his father's genius, and a daughter,
who married a son of Werner von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple
but refined tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His
life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must be
accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men of the 19th
century.
See L. Konigsberger, _Hermann von Helmholtz_ (1902; English
translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. McKendrick, _H. L. F.
von Helmholtz_ (1899). (J. G. M.)
HELMOLD, an historian of the 12th century, was a priest at Bosau near
Plon. He was a friend of the two bishops of Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154)
and Gerold (d. 1163), who did much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop
Gerold's instigation Helmold wrote his _Chronica Slavorum_, a history of
the conquest and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of
Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
Helmold's chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had exceptional means
for gaining information, is of first-rate importance. The history was
continued down to 1209 by Abbot Arnold of Lubeck.
The _Chronica_ were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort a.
M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in _Mon. Germ.
hist. scriptores_, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the _Chronica_
see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi_, s. "Helmoldus."
HELMOND, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, on the small
river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart) between 's Hertogenbosch
and Maastricht, 24(1/2) m. by rail W.N.W. of Venlo. It is connected by
steam tramway with 's Hertogenbosch (21 m. N.W.), a branch line
northwards to Osch being given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The
castle of Helmond, built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of
architecture, and among the other buildings of note in the town are the
spacious church of St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall.
Helmond is one of the industrial centres of the province, and possesses
over a score of factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton printing,
dyeing, iron founding, brewing, soap boiling and tobacco dressing, as
well as engine works and a margarine factory. There is an art school in
the town.