3. Art, religion and philosophy.

But as with Aristotle so with Hegel--beyond the ethical and political

sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and

philosophy. The psychological distinction between the three forms is

that sensuous perception (_Anschauung_) is the organon of the first,

presentative conception (_Vorstellung_) of the second and free thought

of the third. The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind,

shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the reality in which

it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is for Hegel an

adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born in the spirit

of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not like the

beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but is

"essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call to

the heart and spirit." The perfection of art depends on the degree of

intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other. From

the different proportion between the idea and the shape in which it is

realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea, itself

indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for its

appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the Oriental,

form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect expression by

colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or classical form of

art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous representation.

But this form disappears with the decease of Greek national life, and

on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form of art; where the

harmony of form and content again grows defective, because the object

of Christian art--the infinite spirit--is a theme too high for art.

Corresponding to this division is the classification of the single

arts. First comes architecture--in the main, symbolic art; then

sculpture, the classical art _par excellence_; they are found,

however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the specially

romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music comes poetry,

where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate to the

spirit.

The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next

sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion;

and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the

aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c.,

make the _Asthetik_ a book of varied interest.

The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in their

composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit the

vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like art,

is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between man

and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and music of

the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after expounding the

nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical phases, but in

the immature state of religious science falls into several mistakes.

At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he places the religion

of sorcery. The gradations which follow are apportioned with some

uncertainty amongst the religions of the East. With the Persian

religion of light and the Egyptian of enigmas we pass to those faiths

where Godhead takes the form of a spiritual individuality, i.e. to the

Hebrew religion (of sublimity), the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman

(of adaptation). Last comes absolute religion, in which the mystery of

the reconciliation between God and man is an open doctrine. This is

Christianity, in which God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The

revelation of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures.

For the Son of God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of

nature and man, which far from being at one with its Father is

originally in an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is

the visible reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death

of Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital

idea--the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.

The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately with

the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning of

Hegel's career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic

they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created

the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that a

philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent of

its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and handing on

its results to the future. (W. W.; X.)

_Hegelianism in England._--On the continent of Europe the direct

influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was due

among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising science

of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative method.

In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in theory and

practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-active to

prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism that was

required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in somewhat the same

relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature. This

explains the hold which it had obtained upon both English and Scottish

thought soon after the middle of the 19th century. The first impulse

came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett

in Oxford. Already in the seventies there was a powerful school of

English thinkers under the lead of Edward Caird and T. H. Green

devoted to the study and exposition of the Hegelian system. With the

general acceptance of its main principle that the real is the

rational, there came in the eighties a more critical examination of

the precise meaning to be attached to it and its bearing on the

problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians had interpreted it in the

sense that the world in its ultimate essence was not only spiritual

but self-conscious intelligence whose nature was reflected

inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus seemed to come

forward in the character of exponents rather than critics of the

Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As time went on it

became obvious that without departure from the spirit of idealism

Hegel's principle was susceptible of a different interpretation.

Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner coherence and

self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth and reality, does

self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of this criterion? If

not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality to personality whether

human or divine? The question was definitely raised in F. H. Bradley's

_Appearance and Reality_ (1893; 2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the

negative. The completeness and self-consistency which our ideal

requires can be realized only in a form of being in which subject and

object, will and desire, no longer stand as exclusive opposites, from

which it seemed at once to follow that the finite self could not be a

reality nor the infinite reality a self. On this basis Bradley

developed a theory of the Absolute which, while not denying that it

must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its spirituality is of

a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious experience. More

recently J. M. E. McTaggart's _Studies in Hegelian Dialectic_ (1896),

_Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901) and _Some Dogmas of Religion_

(1906) have opened a new chapter in the interpretation of Hegelianism.

Truly perceiving that the ultimate metaphysical problem is, here as

ever, the relation of the One and the Many, McTaggart starts with a

definition of the ideal in which our thought upon it can come to rest.

He finds it where (a) the unity is for each individual, (b) the whole

nature of the individual is to be _for_ the unity. It follows from

such a conception of the relation that the whole cannot itself be an

individual apart from the individuals in whom it is realized, in other

words, the Absolute cannot be a Person. But for the same reason--viz.

that in it first and in it alone this condition is realized--the

individual soul must be held to be an ultimate reality reflecting in

its inmost nature, like the monad of Leibniz, the complete fulness and

harmony of the whole. In reply to Bradley's argument for the unreality

of the self, Hegel is interpreted as meaning that the opposition

between self and not-self on which it is founded is one that is

self-made and in being made is transcended. The fuller our knowledge

of reality the more does the object stand out as an invulnerable

system of ordered parts, but the process by which it is thus set in

opposition to the subject is also the process by which we understand

and transform it into the substance of our own thought. From this

position further consequences followed. Seeing that the individual

soul must thus be taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in

complete harmony with the whole, it must eternally be at one with

itself: all change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is,

and is maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it

cannot fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal

substance continuously expressing itself in different individuals who

fall back into its being like drops into the ocean will here be

sufficient. The ocean is the drops. "The Absolute requires each self

not to make up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the

self's special and unique nature." Finally as it cannot cease, neither

can the individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as

necessary and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link

between the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the

substance of the soul.

In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of

paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent

years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against

Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of a

revival of realism (see METAPHYSICS), on the other of a new form of

subjective idealism (see PRAGMATISM). As yet neither of these

movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish

itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But

they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its

progress and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the

fundamental principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the

fundamental problems of religion. This will probably be the main work

of the next generation of thinkers in England (see IDEALISM).

Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and B. Spaventa

(1817-1883); see V. de Lucia, _L'Hegel in Italia_ (1891). In Sweden,

J. J. Borelius of Lund; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884), M. J. Monrad

(1816-1897) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted Hegelianism; in France,

P. Leroux and P. Prevost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Shortly after Hegel's death his collected works were

published by a number of his friends, who combined for the purpose.

They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second edition came

out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain the works

published by himself; the remainder is made up of his lectures on the

Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of Religion and the

History of Philosophy, besides some essays and reviews, with a few of

his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic.

For his life see K. Rosenkranz, _Leben Hegels_ (Berlin, 1844); R. R.

Haym, _Hegel und seine Zeit_ (Berlin, 1857); K. Kostlin, _Hegel in

philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung_ (Tubingen,

1870); Rosenkranz, _Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph_ (Berlin,

1870), and his _Neue Studien_, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer,

_Hegels Leben und Werke_.

For the philosophy see A. Ruge's _Aus fruherer Zeit_, vol. iv.

(Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in _Logische

Untersuchungen_); A. L. Kym (_Metaphysische Untersuchungen_) and C.

Hermann (_Hegel und die logische Frage_ and other works) are

noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noel, _La Logique de Hegel_

(Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, _Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der

Hegelschen Logik_ (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the

_Encyklopadie_ into French, with notes; C. Benard, the _Asthetik_. In

English J. Hutcheson Stirling's _Secret of Hegel_ (2 vols., London,

1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the _Wissenschaft der

Logik_; the "Logic" from the _Encyklopadie_ has been translated, with

Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also translated

the third part of the _Encyklopadie in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind_

(1894); R. B. Haldane the _History of Philosophy_ (1896); E. B.

Speirs, lectures on the _Philosophy of Religion_ (1895); J. Sibree,

lectures on _The Philosophy of History_ (1852); B. Bosanquet,

_Philosophy of Fine Art_, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, _The

Philosophy of Art_ (1886); S. W. Dyde, _The Philosophy of Right_

(1896). Other recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those

mentioned above are W. T. Harris, _Hegel's Logic_ (1890); J. B.

Baillie, _Origin and Significance of Hegel's Logic_ (1901), and

_Outline of the Idealistic Construction of Experience_ (1906); P.

Barth, _Die Geschichtsphilosophie Hegels_ (1890); J. A. Marrast, _La

Philosophie du droit de Hegel_ (1869); L. Miraglia, _I Principii

fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica di Hegel_ (1873); _Hegel's

Philosophy of the State and History_ (Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G.

Bolland, _Philosophie des Rechts_ (1902), and _Hegels Philosophie der

Religion_ (1901); E. Ott, _Die Religionsphilosophie Hegels_ (1904); J.

M. Sterrett, _Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion_ (1891); M.

Ehrenhauss, _Hegels Gottesbegriff_ (1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A.

Seth Pringle-Pattison, _Hegelianism and Personality_ (1893); Millicent

Mackenzie, _Hegel's Educational Theory and Practice_ (1909), with

biographical sketch; J. M. E. McTaggart, _Commentary on Hegel's Logic_

(1910). (J. H. Mu.)

HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy, nicknamed [Greek:

Phake] from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him,

except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian War. According to

Aristotle (_Poetics_, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by

slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the

sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily

reached Athens, his parody of the _Gigantomachia_ was being performed;

it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of

leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He was also

the author of a comedy called _Philinne_ (_Philine_), written in the

manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known

courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of

his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).

Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880); B.

J. Peltzer, _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855).

HEGEMONY (Gr. [Greek: hegemonia], leadership, from [Greek: hegeisthai],

to lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group

of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in

Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position

of predominance (_primus inter pares_) among other equal states, coupled

with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by

Macedon (see GREECE: _Ancient History_, and DELIAN LEAGUE).

HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian,

flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the

founder of the florid style of composition known as "Asiatic" (cf.

TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cicero all speak

of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of

his work. He professed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding

long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without

modulation or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his

writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his

composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally

supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that

Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the

Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants

by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part

of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is

supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (_cod._ 250) that the

only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational

events.

See Cicero, _Brutus_ 83, _Orator_ 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note,

_ad Att._ xii. 6; Dion. Halic. _De verborum comp._ iv.; Aulus Gellius

ix. 4; Plutarch, _Alexander_, 3; C. W. Muller, _Scriptores rerum

Alexandri Magni_, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846);

Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (1898); J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek

Historians_ (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of

"Asiatic" style, with example from Hegesias.

HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed [Greek: Krobylos]

("knot"), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in

the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian policy he was an

enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent

to Macedonia to discuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the

island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was

unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to

resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question

of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De _Halonneso_ was

delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes,

is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus

and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes.

See Demosthenes, _De falsa legatione_ 364, 447, _De corona_ 250,

_Philippica_ iii. 129; Plutarch, _Demosthenes_ 17, _Apophthegmata_,

187D; Dionysius Halic. _ad Ammaeum_, i.; Grote, _History of Greece_,

ch. 90.

HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of

Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus

Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged to that group of

Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law themselves, did not

attempt to impose on others the requirements of circumcision and Sabbath

observance. He was the author of a treatise ([Greek: hypomnemata]) in

five books dealing with such subjects as Christian literature, the unity

of church doctrine, paganism, heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments

of which are found in Eusebius, who obtained much of his information

concerning early Palestinian church history and chronology from this

source. Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other

leaders of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way)

about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed him with

the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities he visited was

a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: "in each succession

and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance with that which the Law

and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e. the Old Testament and the

evangelical tradition] proclaim." To illustrate this opinion he drew up

a list of the Roman bishops. Hegesippus is thus a significant figure

both for the type of Christianity taught in the circle to which he

belonged, and as accentuating the point of view which the church began

to assume in the presence of a developing gnosticism.

HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the

_Jewish War_ of Josephus under the title _De bello Judaico et excidio

urbis Hierosolymitanae_. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into

five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of

Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to

suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have

been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly

a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of

Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan

(340-397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The

name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through

the stages [Greek: Iosepos], Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it

was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of

ecclesiastical history (2nd century).

Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E.

Schurer, _History of the Jewish People_ (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; F.

Vogel, _De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete_ (Erlangen,

1881).

HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German humanist, so called

from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of

Thomas a Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at

Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either

founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous

for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these

was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of

humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt)

and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498.

His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays,

grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his

pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but

less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's

chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but

upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing

the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led

his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His

generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune,

and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes.

See D. Reichling, "Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius," in

the _Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland_ (1877); H. Hamelmann, _Opera

genealogico-historica_ (1711); H. A. Erhard, _Geschichte des

Wiederaufbluhens wissenschaftlicher Bildung_ (1826); C. Krafft and W.

Crecelius, "Alexander Hegius und seine Schuler," from the works of

Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in _Zeitschrift des

bergischen Geschichtsvereins_, vii. (Bonn, 1871).

HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and critic, son of the

political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841), and of the famous

novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, was born at

Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled

and settled in Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign

office, retiring in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical

writings continued to exercise great influence over his

fellow-countrymen. Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and

his wife into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the

university of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled _The

Theatre for Marionettes_ (1814), included two romantic dramas. This was

followed by _Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks_ (1816), _The

Initiation of Psyche_ (1817), and _The Prophecy of Tycho Brahe_, a

satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic writers, especially on the

sentimentality of Ingemann. These works attracted attention at a time

when Baggesen, Ohlenschlager and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and

were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817

Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from

government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there

with his father. In 1822 he published his drama of _Nina_, and was made

professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, where he

delivered a course of lectures, comparing the Scandinavian mythology as

found in the _Edda_ with the poems of Ohlenschlager. These lectures were

published in German in 1827.

In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing

the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a great number of these

vaudevilles, of which the best known are _King Solomon and George the

Hatmaker_ (1825); _April Fools_ (1826); _A Story in Rosenborg Garden_

(1827); _Kjoge Huskors_ (1831); _The Danes in Paris_ (1833); _No_

(1836); and _Yes_ (1839). He took his models from the French theatre,

but showed extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but

the subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical.

Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind; in 1828

he brought out the national drama of _Elverhoi_; in 1830 _The

Inseparables_; in 1835 the fairy comedy of _The Elves_, a dramatic

version of Tieck's _Elfin_; and in 1838 _Fata Morgana_. In 1841 Heiberg

published a volume of _New Poems_ containing "A Soul after Death," a

comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece, "The Newly Wedded Pair," and

other pieces. He edited from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the

_Flyvende Post_ (The Flying Post), and subsequently the _Interimsblade_

(1834-1837) and the _Intelligensblade_ (1842-1843). In his journalism he

carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the

Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating criticism of

art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress Johanne Louise

Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some popular vaudevilles.

Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made him very unpopular; and this

antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published his malicious

little drama of _The Nut Crackers_. Nevertheless he became in 1847

director of the national theatre. He filled the post for seven years,

working with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by

intrigues from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup,

near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon taste and

critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of his time, and

can only be compared with that of Holberg in the 18th century. Most of

the poets of the Romantic movement in Denmark were very grave and

serious; Heiberg added the element of humour, elegance and irony. He had

the genius of good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand

almost unique in the literature of his country.

The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in

1861-1862, and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The

last volume of his prose works contains some fragments of

autobiography. See also G. Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). For the elder

Heiberg see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflugel (1891).

HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of

Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes

and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Gluckstadt, at the

junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding and Neumunster-Tonning. Pop.

(1905), 8758. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a

high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries.

Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but

on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the

peasant forces by the Danes.

HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss theologian, was born at

Barentschweil, in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, on the 1st of July

1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the

friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632-1696), and was appointed _professor

extraordinarius_ of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was

called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical

history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of

Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he

travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the

acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zurich, where

he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he

succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in the chair of theology, which he

occupied till his death on the 18th of January 1698, having declined an

invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call

to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the _Formula

Consensus Helvetica_ in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss

Reformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as

the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.

His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and

are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief

are _De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes selectae_

(1667-1671); _Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis_ (1670); _De

ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea_, &c. (1670); _Historia papatus_

(1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); _Manuductio in viam

concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae_ (1686); _Tumulus concilii

Tridentini_ (1690); _Exercitationes biblicae_ (1700), with a life of the

author prefixed; _Corpus theologiae Christianae_ (1700, edited by J. H.

Schweizer); _Ethicae Christianae elementa_ (1711); and lives of J. H.

Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared

in 1698, under the title _Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri_.

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the

_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. W. Gass, _Geschichte der

protestantischen Dogmatik_, ii. 353 ff.

HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the Neckar, 12 m.

above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. from Mannheim and 54 m.

from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The situation of the town, lying between

lofty hills covered with vineyards and forests, at the spot where the

rapid Neckar leaves the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one

of great natural beauty. The town itself consists practically of one

long, narrow street--the Hauptstrasse--running parallel to the river,

from the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east (where

there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To the south of

this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by handsome villas and

gardens, leading directly to the centre of the place. A number of

smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse at right angles and run down

to the river, which is crossed by two fine bridges. Of these, the old

bridge on the east, built in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned

with statues of Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the

Palatinate; the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877,

connects Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and

Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely towards the

west on both sides of the river; but the additions have been almost

entirely of the better class of residences. Heidelberg is an important

railway centre, and is connected by trunk lines with Frankfort,

Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and Wurzburg. Electric trams provide for

local traffic, and there are also several light railways joining it with

the neighbouring villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant

Peterskirche dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to the

door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; the Heilige

Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing Gothic edifice of

the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman Catholic), with a

sumptuously decorated interior, and the new Evangelical Christuskirche.

The town hall and the university buildings, dating from 1712 and

restored in 1886, are commonplace erections; but to the south of the

Ludwigsplatz, upon which most of the academical buildings lie, stands

the new university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in

German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz with its

equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are other squares in

the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz with a statue of Bismarck,

and the Jubilaumsplatz.

The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs the

east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbuhl, a spur of the

Konigsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above the Neckar. Though

now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, its beautiful situation

and its interesting history render it by far the most noteworthy, as it

certainly is the grandest and largest, of the old castles of Germany.

The building was begun early in the 13th century. The elector palatine

and German king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the

wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name. Succeeding

electors further extended and embellished it (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate

VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry "the Magnanimous" (d. 1559), who

built the beautiful early Renaissance wing known as the

Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); Frederick IV., for whom the fine late

Renaissance wing called the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and

Frederick V., the unfortunate "winter king" of Bohemia, who on the west

side added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after his

wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress of the

present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of Westphalia,

Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son, Charles Louis, who

restored the castle to its former splendour. In 1688, during Louis

XIV.'s invasion of the Palatinate, the castle was taken, after a long

siege, by the French, who blew part of it up when they found they could

not hope to hold it (March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by

them and still further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by

lightning and reduced to its present ruinous condition.

[Illustration: Map of Heidelberg.]

Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square with round

towers at the angles, the principal buildings being grouped round a

central courtyard, the entrance to which is from the south through a

series of gateways. In this courtyard, besides the buildings already

mentioned, are the oldest parts of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau

(old building) and the Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated

with statues of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored

and rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy objects

in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated with four

granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingelheim; the

Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the English princess;

the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. angle; the ruins of the

Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte Turm, or blown-up tower, and the

castle chapel and the museum of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a

cellar entered from the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg.

This vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or two

occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. high and 31

ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan (1610), or castle

balcony, from which is obtained a view of great beauty, extending from

the town beneath to the heights across the Neckar and over the broad

luxuriant plain of the Rhine to Mannheim and the dim contours of the

Hardt Mountains behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a

statue of Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.

The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector Rupert I., in

1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope Urban VI. in that

year. It was constructed after the type of Paris, had four faculties,

and possessed numerous privileges. Marselius von Inghen was its first

rector. The electors Frederick I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright

and Louis V. respectively cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new

organization, further endowed it and founded the library. At the

Reformation it became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the

Heidelberg catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide

turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years' War, it led a struggling existence

for a century and a half. A large portion of its remaining endowments

was cut off by the peace of Luneville (1801). In 1803, however, Charles

Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, raised it anew and reconstituted it

under the name of "Ruperto-Carola." The number of professors and

teachers is at present about 150 and of students 1700. The library was

first kept in the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted

of 3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I., duke of

Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican. It was

afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was restored to Heidelberg. It

has more than 500,000 volumes, besides 4000 MSS. Among the other

university institutions are the academic hospital, the maternity

hospital, the physiological institution, the chemical laboratory, the

zoological museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the

Konigsstuhl.

The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern and a

technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and several other

scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg include cigars,

leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer, but the inhabitants

chiefly support themselves by supplying the wants of a large and

increasing body of foreign permanent residents, of the considerable

number of tourists who during the summer pass through the town, and of

the university students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up

to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft. above

the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with excellent water

from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304; (1905), 49,527.

At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of Worms, who

entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of the Rhine, Louis I. It

soon became a town and the chief residence of the counts palatine.

Heidelberg was one of the great centres of the reformed teaching and was

the headquarters of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much

during the Thirty Years' War, being captured and plundered by Count

Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists in

1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the elector Charles

Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg was sacked by the French. On

the latter occasion the work of destruction was carried out so

thoroughly that only one house escaped; this being a quaintly decorated

erection in the Marktplatz, which is now the Hotel zum Ritter. In 1720

the elector Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the

town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of March 1848

the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this meeting the steps

were taken which led to the revolution in Germany in that year.

See Oncken, _Stadt, Schloss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder aus

ihrer Vergangenheit_ (Heidelberg, 1885); Ochelhauser, _Das

Heidelberger Schloss, bau- und kunstgeschichtlicher Fuhrer_

(Heidelberg, 1902); Pfaff, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Heidelberg,

1902); Lorentzen, _Heidelberg und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm,

_Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie_ (Berlin, 1884); Koch and

Seitz, _Das Heidelberger Schloss_ (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz,

_Geschickte der Universitat Heidelberg_ (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke,

_Geschichte der Universitat Heidelberg_ (Stuttgart, 1886); the

_Urkundenbuch der Universitat Heidelberg_, edited by Winkelmann

(Heidelberg, 1886); Bahr, _Die Entfuhrung der Heidelberger Bibliothek

nach Rom_ (Leipzig, 1845); and G. Weber, _Heidelberger Erinnerungen_

(Stuttgart, 1886).

HEIDELBERG, a town and district of the Transvaal. The district is

bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-eastern part of the

Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of

Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of

whom 1837 were white. It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of

the Rand at an elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium

in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand goldmines.

HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE, the most attractive of all the catechisms of

the Reformation, was drawn up at the bidding of Frederick III., elector

of the Palatinate, and published on Tuesday the 19th of January 1563.

The new religion in the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance

of Philip Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg

and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these, Tillemann,

Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held extreme

Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire to force the

community into his own position excommunicated his colleague Klebitz,

who held Zwinglian views. When the breach was widening Frederick, "der

fromme Kurfurst," came to the succession, dismissed the two chief

combatants and referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded

verdict was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August

1560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after he

resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the evangelical

faith. He entrusted the task to two young men who have won deserved

remembrance by their learning and their character alike. Zacharias

Ursinus was born at Breslau in July 1534 and attained high honour in the

university of Wittenberg. In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in

his native town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans

drove him to Zurich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr,

summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and

superintendent of the _Sapientiae Collegium_. He was a man of modest and

gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching gifts, but unwearied in

study and consummately able to impart his learning to others. Deposed

from his chair by the elector Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir

at Neustadt and found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there,

dying in his 49th year, in March 1583.

Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up law for

theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr in Zurich, and

Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he preached the new faith in

his native city, and when banished therefrom found a home with Frederick

of Heidelberg, where he gained high renown as preacher and

administrator. His ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement

of Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended by

Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of Nassau, in

whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the high school until his

death on the 15th of March 1587. The elector could have chosen no better

men, young as they were, for the task in hand. As a first step each drew

up a catechism of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally

of a more grave and academic turn than the freer production of

Olevianus, while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in

use. But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits of

the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded, the exactness

and erudition of the one being blended with the fervency and grace of

the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism, which was completed within a

year of its inception, has an individuality that marks it out from all

its predecessors and successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously

approved of it, it was published in January 1563, and in the same year

officially turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus.

The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great bitterness, the

assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius Illyricus. Maximilian II.

remonstrated against it as an infringement of the peace of Augsburg. A

conference was held at Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack

was made on the elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence

was well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond the

bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse from 1576 to

1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained an abundant success

not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt, Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in

the Netherlands (1588), and in the Reformed churches of Hungary,

Transylvania and Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of

Dort in 1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably

shares with the _De imitatione Christi_ and _The Pilgrim's Progress_ the

honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues into which

it has been translated.

This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an avoidance of

polemical and controversial subjects, and even more to an absence of the

controversial spirit. There is no mistake about its Protestantism, even

when we omit the unhappy addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself

(in indignant reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in

which the Mass is described as "nothing else than a denial of the one

sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry"--an

addition which is the one blot on the [Greek: epieikeia] of the

catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of head and

heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the beauty of a lyric.

It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans (excepting chapters

ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin, Redemption and the New Life.

This arrangement alone would mark it out from the normal reformation

catechism, which runs along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed,

Lord's Prayer, Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are

shown as organically related. The Commandments, e.g. "belong to the

first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery, but also

to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience and Christian

life." The Creed--a panorama of the sublime facts of redemption--and the

sacraments find their place in the second part; the Lord's Prayer (with

the Decalogue) in the third.

See _The Heidelberg Catechism_, the _German Text, with a Revised

Translation and Introduction_, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900).

HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON (1788-1865), German architect, the son of

Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born at Stuttgart. He studied at

the art academy of his native town, and after following the profession

of an architect for some time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city

architect at Nuremberg. In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic

school, holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen

conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his chief

attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the buildings

restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its neighbourhood attest

both his original skill and his purity of taste. He also achieved some

success as a painter in watercolour. He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of

September 1865. Among his architectural works should be mentioned the

castle of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at

Coburg, the castle of Landsberg, the mortuary chapel in Meiningen, the

little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the castle of

Rheinstein near Bingen, and the Catholic church in Leipzig. His powers

in restoration are shown in the castle of Lichtenstein, the cathedral of

Bamberg, and the Knights' Chapel (_Ritter Kapelle_) at Hassfurt.

Among his writings on architecture are _Die Lehre von den

Saulenordnungen_ (1827); _Der Kleine Vignola_ (1832); _Nurnbergs

Baudenkmaler der Vorzeit_ (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and _Die

Ornamentik des Mittelalters_ (1838-1842).

HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 31 m. by

rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1905), 12,173. It has an Evangelical

and a Roman Catholic church, and several schools. Its industrial

establishments include cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical

factories, bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle

markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in 1356, is

overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein, standing on a hill

1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name of a small place in Bavaria

famous on account of the Benedictine abbey which formerly stood therein.

Founded in 748 by Wilibald, bishop of Eichstatt, this was plundered by

the peasantry in 1525 and was closed in 1537.

HEIFER, a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. _heahfore_ or

_heafru_, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin. It is

found in Bede's _History_ (A.D. 900) as _heahfore_, and has passed

through many forms. It is possibly derived from _heah_, high, and

_faren_ (fare), to go, meaning "high-stepper." It has also been

suggested that the derivation is from _hea_, a stall, and _fore_, a cow.

HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON (1835-1905), German novelist, was born, the son

of a _regisseur_ or stage-manager of the court theatre, on the 25th of

March 1835 at Munich. In this city he received his early schooling and

studied (1854-1858) philosophy at the university. He was then appointed

librarian to Prince Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and

accompanied the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in

Berlin, where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He next

resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king, Ludwig II.,

who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility. On the death of the

king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the Lago di Garda, where he died on

the 6th of September 1905. Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with

his novels: _Wohin?_ (1873), _Die Dame ohne Herz_ (1873), _Das Geheimnis

des Konigs_ (1891), _Der Roman einer Stadt_ (1898), _Der Maharadschah_

(1900), _Die nervose Frau_ (1900), _Die neuen Heiligen_ (1901), and

_Bromels Gluck und Ende_ (1902). He also wrote some plays, notably

_Josephine Bonaparte_ (1892) and _Die Zarin_ (1883); and several

collections of short stories, _Neue Erzahlungen_ (1876), _Neueste

Novellen_ (1878), and _Heitere Erzahlungen_ (1893).

HEIJERMANS, HERMANN (1864- ), Dutch writer, of Jewish origin, was born

on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotterdam. In the Amsterdam _Handelsblad_

he published a series of sketches of Jewish family life under the

pseudonym of "Samuel Falkland," which were collected in volume form. His

novels and tales include _Trinette_ (1892), _Fles_ (1893),

_Kamertjeszonde_ (2 vols., 1896), _Interieurs_ (1897), _Diamantstadt_ (2

vols., 1903). He created great interest by his play _Op Hoop van Zegen_

(1900), represented at the Theatre Antoine in Paris, and in English by

the Stage Society as _The Good Hope_. His other plays are: _Dora Kremer_

(1893), _Ghetto_ (1898), _Het zevende Gebot_ (1899), _Het Pantser_

(1901), _Ora et labora_ (1901), and numerous one-act pieces. _A Case of

Arson_, an English version of the one-act play _Brand in de Jonge Jan_,

was notable for the impersonation (1904 and 1905) by Henri de Vries of

all the seven witnesses who appear as characters.

HEILBRONN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, situated in

a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar, 33 m. by rail N. of

Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and

Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In the older part of the town the streets

are narrow, and contain a number of high turreted houses with quaintly

adorned gables. The old fortifications have now been demolished, and

their site is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more

modern parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings.

The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian (restored

1886-1895) in the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun about 1019 and

completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft. high, a beautiful

choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall (Rathaus), founded in

1540, and possessing a curious clock made in 1580, and a collection of

interesting letters and other documents; the house of the Teutonic

knights (Deutsches Haus), now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic

church of St Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the

tower (Diebsturm or Gotzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Gotz von

Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an historical

museum and several monuments, among them those to the emperors William

I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to Schiller and to Robert von Mayer

(1814-1878), a native of the town, famous for his discoveries concerning

heat. The educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial

school and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point of

view is the most important in Wurttemberg, and possesses an immense

variety of manufactures, of which the principal are gold, silver, steel

and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white lead, vinegar, beer,

sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals, artificial manure, glue,

soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes, fruit, vegetables and flowering

shrubs are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there are large

quarries for sandstone and gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of

the Neckar a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather,

agricultural produce, fruit and cattle.

Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it is first

mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace here. It owes

its name--originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring--to a spring of water

which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from under the high altar of the

church of St Kilian. Heilbronn obtained privileges from Henry IV. and

from Rudolph I. and became a free imperial city in 1360. It was

frequently besieged during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly

during the Peasants' War, the Thirty Years' War, and the various wars

with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here between

Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Frankish estates and the French, English

and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the Heilbronn treaty, for

the prosecution of the Thirty Years' War, was concluded. In 1802

Heilbronn was annexed by Wurttemberg.

See Jager, _Geschichte von Heilbronn_ (Heilbronn, 1828); Kuttler,

_Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte_ (Heilbronn, 1859);

Durr, _Heilbronner Chronik_ (Halle, 1896); Schliz, _Die Entstehung der

Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn_ (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Kusel, _Der

Heilbrunner Konvent_ (Halle, 1878).

HEILIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Leine, 32

m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle. Pop. (1905), 7955. It

possesses an old castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Mainz,

one Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, several educational

establishments, and an infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton

goods, cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have

been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly the capital of

the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was acquired by the archbishop

of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into the possession of Henry the Proud,

duke of Saxony, but when his son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban

of the Empire, it again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333,

and was captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it came

into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated college here

from 1581 to 1773.

HEILSBERG, a town of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, at the

junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of Konigsberg. Pop. (1905),

6042. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and an old

castle formerly the seat of the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used

as an infirmary. The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and

brewing, and there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at

Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat of the

bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for 500 years. On the

10th of June 1807 a battle took place at Heilsberg between the French

under Soult and Murat, and the Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen.

HEILSBRONN (or KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN), a village of Germany, in the

Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with a station on the railway

between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has 1200 inhabitants. In the middle ages

it was the seat of one of the great monasteries of Germany. This

foundation, which belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to

Bishop Otto of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its

sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker,

_Heilsbronnischer Antiquitatenschatz_ (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of

exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary burial-place

of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of Nuremberg, five

margraves and three electors of Brandenburg, and many other persons of

note are buried within its walls. The buildings of the monastery have

mostly disappeared, with the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque

basilica, restored between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by

Albert Durer. The "Monk of Heilsbronn" is the ordinary appellation of a

didactic poet of the 14th century, whose _Sieben Graden_, _Tochter Syon_

and _Leben des heiligen Alexius_ were published by J. F. L. T. Merzdorf

at Berlin in 1870.

See Rehm, _Ein Gang durch und um die Munster-Kirche zu

Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, _Kloster-Heilsbronn,

ein Beitrag zu den Hohenzollernschen Forschungen_ (Berlin, 1877);

Muck, _Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn_ (Nordlingen, 1879-1880); J.

Meyer, _Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn_ (Ansbach, 1891); and

A. Wagner, _Uber den Monch von Heilsbronn_ (Strassburg, 1876).

HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN (1849- ), Swiss geologist, was born at

Zurich on the 12th of April 1849. He was educated at Zurich and Berlin

universities. Very early in life he became interested in the physical

features of the Alps, and at the age of sixteen he made a model of the

Todi group. This came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth,

to whom Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological

instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology in the

polytechnic school at Zurich, and in 1875 professor of geology in the

university. In 1882 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey

of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon

him at Berne. He is especially distinguished for his researches on the

structure of the Alps and for the light thereby thrown on the structure

of mountain masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to

major stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust

faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial drawings.

His magnificent work, _Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung_ (1878), is now

regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire Professor C. Lapworth in

his brilliant researches on the Scottish Highlands (see _Geol. Mag._

1883). Heim also devoted considerable attention to the glacial phenomena

of the Alpine regions. The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by

the Geological Society of London.

HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1787-1865), French painter, was born at Belfort

on the 16th of December 1787. He early distinguished himself at the

Ecole Centrale of Strassburg, and in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent

at Paris. In 1807 he obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture

of "The Return of Jacob" (Musee de Bordeaux) won for him a gold medal of

the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when he exhibited,

together with other works, a St John--bought by Vivant Denon. In 1819

the "Resurrection of Lazarus" (Cathedral Autun), the "Martyrdom of St

Cyr" (St Gervais), and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by

the king) attracted attention. In 1823 the "Re-erection of the Royal

Tombs at St Denis," the "Martyrdom of St Laurence" (Notre Dame) and

several full-length portraits increased the painter's popularity; and in

1824, when he exhibited his great canvas, the "Massacre of the Jews"

(Louvre), Heim was rewarded with the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared

the "King giving away Prizes at the Salon of 1824" (Louvre--engraved by

Jazet)--the picture by which Heim is best known--and "Saint Hyacinthe."

Heim was now commissioned to decorate the Gallery Charles X. (Louvre).

Though ridiculed by the romantists, Heim succeeded Regnault at the

Institute in 1834, shortly after which he commenced a series of drawings

of the celebrities of his day, which are of much interest. His

decorations of the Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were

completed in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon--"Champ de Mai"

and "Reading a Play at the Theatre Francais"--were the signal for

violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in his favour

took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a draughtsman and

the occasional merits of his composition were recognized, and toleration

extended even to his colour. Heim was awarded the great gold medal, and

in 1855--having sent to the Salon no less than sixteen portraits,

amongst which may be cited those of "Cuvier," "Geoffroy de St Hilaire,"

and "Madame Hersent"--he was made officer of the legion of honour. In

1859 he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four

members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died on the 29th

of September 1865. Besides the paintings already mentioned, there is to

be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris) a work executed on the spot;

and the museum of Strassburg contains an excellent example of his easel

pictures, the subject of which is a "Shepherd Drinking from a Spring."

HEIMDAL, or _Heimdall_, in Scandinavian mythology, the keeper of the

gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifrost. He is

the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters. He is called "the god with

the golden teeth." He lives in the stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end

of Bifrost. His chief attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape.

He sleeps less than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can

hear the grass, and even the wool on a lamb's back grow. He is armed

with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods on the

day of judgment.

HEINE, HEINRICH, (1797-1856), German poet and journalist, was born at

Dusseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the 13th of December 1797. His father,

after various vicissitudes in business, had finally settled in

Dusseldorf, and his mother, who possessed much energy of character, was

the daughter of a physician of the same place. Heinrich (or, more

exactly, Harry) was the eldest of four children, and received his

education, first in private schools, then in the Lyceum of his native

town; although not an especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a

knowledge of French and English, as well as some tincture of the

classics and Hebrew. His early years coincided with the most brilliant

period of Napoleon's career, and the boundless veneration which he is

never tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings shows

that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers and troopers of a

victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum. By freeing the Jews from

many of the political disabilities under which they had hitherto

suffered, Napoleon became, it may be noted, the object of particular

enthusiasm in the circles amidst which Heine grew up. When he left

school in 1815, an attempt was made to engage him in business in

Frankfort, but without success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon

Heine, a wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion

for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young man more

contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success was such that his

uncle decided to set him up in business for himself. This, however,

proved too bold a step; in a very few months the firm of "Harry Heine &

Co." was insolvent. His uncle now generously provided him with money to

enable him to study at a university, with the view to entering the legal

profession, and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the

university of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to

the study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst his

teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in Heine's

poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him. In the autumn

of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Gottingen, where he proposed to devote

himself more assiduously to professional studies, but in February of the

following year he challenged to a pistol duel a fellow-student who had

insulted him, and was, in consequence, rusticated for six months. The

pedantic atmosphere of the university of Gottingen was, however, little

to his taste; the news of his cousin's marriage unsettled him still

more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction in Berlin.

In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a very different

life from that of Gottingen was stirring in the new university there,

and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at the feet of Hegel and

imbibed from him, doubtless, those views which in later years made the

poet the apostle of an outlook upon life more modern than that of his

romantic predecessors. Heine was also fortunate in having access to the

chief literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy with

Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel, at whose house he

frequently met such men as the Humboldts, Hegel himself and

Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance of leading men of letters like

Fouque and Chamisso, and was on a still more familiar footing with the

most distinguished of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such

favourable circumstances his own gifts were soon displayed. He

contributed poems to the _Berliner Gesellschafter_, many of which were

subsequently incorporated in the _Buch der Lieder_, and in December 1821

a little volume came from the press entitled _Gedichte_, his first

avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this time as

correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in completing his

tragedies _Almansor_ and _William Ratcliff_, which were published in

1823 with small success. In that same year Heine, not in the most

hopeful spirits, returned to his family, who had meanwhile moved to

Luneburg. He had plans of settling in Paris, but as he was still

dependent on his uncle, the latter's consent had to be obtained. As was

to be expected, Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised

to continue his support on the condition that Harry completed his course

of legal study. He sent the young student for a six weeks' holiday at

Cuxhaven, which opened the poet's eyes to the wonders of the sea; and

three weeks spent subsequently at his uncle's county seat near Hamburg

were sufficient to awaken a new passion in Heine's breast--this time for

Amalie's sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Gottingen,

where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to the

Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortalized in the

first volume of the _Reisebilder_, he remained until his graduation in

the summer of the following year. It was on the latter of these journeys

that he had the interview with Goethe which was so amusingly described

by him in later years. A few weeks before obtaining his degree, he took

a step which he had long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity.

This "act of apostasy," which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary length

both by Heine's enemies and admirers, was actuated wholly by practical

considerations, and did not arise from any wish on the poet's part to

deny his race. The summer months which followed his examination Heine

spent by his beloved sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having

again generously supplied the means for this purpose. The question of

his future now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered

the plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was

associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin Therese.

Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publication of the

_Reisebilder_, the first volume of which, _Die Harzreise_, appeared in

May 1826. The success of the book was instantaneous. Its lyric outbursts

and flashes of wit; its rapid changes from grave to gay; its flexibility

of thought and style, came as a revelation to a generation which had

grown weary of the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists.

In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned visit to

England, where he was deeply impressed by the free and vigorous public

life, by the size and bustle of London; above all, he was filled with

admiration for Canning, whose policy had realized many a dream of the

young German idealists of that age. But the picture had also its

reverse; the sordidly commercial spirit of English life, and brutal

egotism of the ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine's sensitive nature;

he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent and

was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment and

observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English life left a

deeper mark on his memory than the bright side. In October Baron Cotta,

the well-known publisher, offered Heine--the second volume of whose

_Reisebilder_ and the _Buch der Lieder_ had meanwhile appeared and won

him fresh laurels--the joint-editorship of the _Neue allgemeine

politische Annalen_. He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to

Munich. Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions

to the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of the

good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously distributing

among artists and men of letters. But the stings of the _Reisebilder_

were not so easily forgotten; the clerical party in particular did not

leave him long in peace. In July 1828, the professorship on which he had

set his hopes being still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy,

where he remained until the following November, a holiday which provided

material for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the

_Reisebilder_. A blow more serious than the Bavarian king's refusal to

establish him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany--the death

of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up his abode in

Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships; in summer he was again

at the sea, and in autumn he returned to the city he now loathed above

all others, Hamburg, where he virtually remained until May 1831. These

years were not a happy period of the poet's life; his efforts to obtain

a position, apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with

rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were unsatisfactory

and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time he was even seriously

ill. His only consolation in these months of discontent was the

completion and publication of the _Reisebilder_. When in 1830 the news

of the July Revolution in the streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed

it as the beginning of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted

once more to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the

following winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said

farewell to his native land.

Heine's first impressions of the "New Jerusalem of Liberalism" were

jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the capital of the

civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest of honours. He was

soon on friendly terms with many of the notabilities of the capital, and

there was every prospect of a congenial and lucrative journalistic

activity as correspondent for German newspapers. Two series of his

articles were subsequently collected and published under the titles

_Franzosische Zustande_ (1832) and _Lutezia_ (written 1840-1843,

published in the _Vermischte Schriften_, 1854). In December 1835,

however, the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel's attacks on "Young

Germany," issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication of any

writings by the members of that coterie; the name of Heine, who had been

stigmatized as the leader of the movement headed the list. This was the

beginning of a series of literary feuds in which Heine was, from now on,

involved; but a more serious and immediate effect of the decree was to

curtail considerably his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had

allowed him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this

moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg relatives. Under

these circumstances he was induced to take a step which his

fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive; he applied to the

French government for support from a secret fund formed for the benefit

of "political refugees" who were willing to place themselves at the

service of France. From 1836 or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine

was in receipt of 4800 francs annually from this source.

In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young Frenchwoman,

Eugenie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop in Paris, and before long had

fallen passionately in love with her. Although ill-educated, vain and

extravagant, she inspired the poet with a deep and lasting affection,

and in 1841, on the eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he

made her his wife. "Mathilde," as Heine called her, was not the comrade

to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better things,

but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been happy with her,

and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness. Her death occurred in

1883. His relations with Mathilde undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties

with Germany; and notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish

for his native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843

and the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable signs of

the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from the spring of

1848 till his death, condemned him to a "mattress grave." These years of

suffering--suffering which left his intellect as clear and vivacious as

ever--seem to have effected what might be called a spiritual

purification in Heine's nature, and to have brought out all the good

sides of his character, whereas adversity in earlier years only

intensified his cynicism. The lyrics of the _Romanzero_ (1851) and the

collection of _Neueste Gedichte_ (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative

depth and sincerity of purpose the poetry of the _Buch der Lieder_. Most

wonderful of all are the poems inspired by Heine's strange mystic

passion for the lady he called _Die Mouche_, a countrywoman of his

own--her real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in French

under the _nom de plume_ of Camille Selden--who helped to brighten the

last months of the poet's life. He died on the 17th of February 1856,

and lies buried in the cemetery of Montmartre.

Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine's Paris years, to which

reference has already been made, he published a collection of more

serious prose writings under the title _Der Salon_ (1833-1839). In this

collection will be found, besides papers on French art and the French

stage, the essays "Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in

Deutschland," which he had written for the _Revue des deux mondes_.

Here, too, are the more characteristic productions of Heine's genius,

_Aus den Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski_, _Der Rabbi von

Bacherach_ and _Florentinische Nachte_. _Die romantische Schule_ (1836),

with its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a less

creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared _Shakespeares

Madchen und Frauen_, which, however, was merely the text to a series of

illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and trenchant satire on a writer,

who, in spite of many personal disagreements, had been Heine's

fellow-fighter in the liberal cause, Ludwig Borne. Of Heine's poetical

work in these years, his most important publications were, besides the

_Romanzero_, the two admirable satires, _Deutschland, ein Wintermarchen_

(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and _Atta Troll, ein

Sommernachtstraum_ (1876), an attack on the political _Tendenzliteratur_

of the 'forties.

In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so hard to

arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine. In his _Buch

der Lieder_ he unquestionably struck a new lyric note, not merely for

Germany but for Europe. No singer before him had been so daring in the

use of nature-symbolism as he, none had given such concrete and plastic

expression to the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect

Heine was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old

Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated to the

degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a fascination over

his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual delicacy, a fineness of

perception, that firm hold on reality which is so essential to the

satirist. His lyric appealed with particular force to foreign peoples,

who had little understanding for the intangible, undefinable

spirituality which the German people regard as an indispensable element

in their national lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in

England and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method, his

self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season, were

little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far, indeed, as the

development of the German lyric is concerned, Heine's influence has been

of questionable value. But he introduced at least one new and refreshing

element into German poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other

German poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea and

coast.

As a prose writer, Heine's merits were very great. His work was, in the

main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high order, and, after all,

the best literature of the "Young German" school to which he belonged

was of this character. Heine's light fancy, his agile intellect, his

straightforward, clear style stood him here in excellent stead. The

prose writings of his French period mark, together with Borne's _Briefe

aus Paris_, the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a

healthy revolt against the unwieldy prose of the Romantic period. Above

all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His lyric may not

be able to assert itself beside that of the very greatest German

singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the highest order. He

combined the holy zeal and passionate earnestness of the "soldier of

humanity" with the withering scorn and ineradicable sense of justice

common to the leaders of the Jewish race. It was Heine's real mission to

be a reformer, to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace

"the interrupted order of the world." The more's the pity that his

magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little room for its

exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty squabbles of an

exiled journalist.

The first collected edition of Heine's works was edited by A.

Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the

_Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine has

been more translated into other tongues than any other German writer

of his time. Mention may here be made of the French translation of his

_Oeuvres completes_ (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the English translation

(by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed, _The Works of

Heinrich Heine_ (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography and criticism see

the following works: A. Strodtmann, _Heines Leben und Werke_ (3rd ed.,

1884); H. Hueffer, _Aus dem Leben H. Heines_ (1878); and by the same

author, _H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsatze_ (1906); G. Karpeles, _H. Heine

und seine Zeitgenossen_ (1888), and by the same author, _H. Heine: aus

seinem Leben und aus seiner Zeit_ (1900); W. Bolsche, _H. Heine:

Versuch einer asthetischkritischen Analyse seiner Werke und seiner

Weltanschauung_ (1888); G. Brandes, _Det unge Tyskland_ (1890; Eng.

trans., 1905). An English biography by W. Stigand, _Life, Works and

Opinions of Heinrich Heine_, appeared in 1875, but it has little

value; there is also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on

Heine by George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best

French contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, _H. Heine,

poete_ (1897), and H. Lichtenberger, _H. Heine, penseur_ (1905). See

also L.P. Betz, _Heine in Frankreich_ (1895). (J. W. F.; J. G. R.)

HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1681-1741), German jurist, was born on the

11th of September 1681 at Eisenberg, Altenburg. He studied theology at

Leipzig, and law at Halle; and at the latter university he was appointed

in 1713 professor of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence.

He subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at

Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor of

philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 31st of August 1741.

Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical jurists. He

endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and not merely as an

empirical art whose rules had no deeper source than expediency. Thus he

continually refers to first principles, and he develops his legal

doctrines as a system of philosophy.

His chief works were _Antiquitatum Romanarum jurisprudentiam

illustrantium syntagma_ (1718), _Historia juris civilis Romani ac

Germanici_ (1733), _Elementa juris Germanici_ (1735), _Elementa juris

naturae et gentium_ (1737; Eng. trans. by Turnbull, 2 vols., London,

1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical subjects,

and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His _Opera

omnia_ (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son Johann

Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791).

Heineccius's brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HEINECCIUS (1674-1722), was a

well-known preacher and theologian, but is remembered more from the fact

that he was the first to make a systematic study of seals, concerning

which he left a book, _De veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum

sigillis_ (Leipzig, 1710; 2nd ed., 1719).

HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1721-1725), a child remarkable for

precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of February 1721 at Lubeck,

where his father was a painter. Able to speak at the age of ten months,

by the time he was one year old he knew by heart the principal incidents

in the Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred history;

at three he was intimately acquainted with history and geography,

ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides being able to speak

French and Latin; and in his fourth year he devoted himself to the study

of religion and church history. This wonderful precocity was no mere

feat of memory, for the youthful savant could reason on and discuss the

knowledge he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Lubeck to see the

wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen at the desire of

the king of Denmark. On his return to Lubeck he began to learn writing,

but his sickly constitution gave way, and he died on the 22nd of June

1725.

_The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Lubeck_ were

published in the following year by his tutor Schoneich. See also

_Teutsche Bibliothek_, xvii., and _Memoires de Trevoux_ (Jan. 1731).

HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790), the originator in Germany of systematic

education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the 10th of April 1727, at

Nautschutz, Germany. Entering the electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he

subsequently supported himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf

and dumb pupil was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was

so great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work. The

outbreak of the Seven Years' War upset his plans for a time. Taken

prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon made his escape.

In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he successfully taught a deaf and dumb

boy to talk, following the methods prescribed by Amman in his book

_Surdus loquens_, but improving on them. Recalled to his own country by

the elector of Saxony, he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and

dumb institution in Germany. This school he directed till his death,

which took place on the 30th of April 1790. He was the author of a

variety of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb.

HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM (1749-1803), German author, was born at

Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on the 16th of February 1749.

After attending the gymnasium at Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and

Erfurt. In Erfurt he became acquainted with Wieland and through him with

"Father" Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at

Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Dusseldorf, where he assisted the poet

J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical _Iris_. Here the famous picture

gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the study of which he

devoted himself with so much zeal and insight that Jacobi furnished him

with funds for a stay in Italy, where he remained for three years

(1780-1783), He returned to Dusseldorf in 1784, and in 1786 was

appointed reader to the elector Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of

Mainz, who subsequently made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where

he died on the 22nd of June 1803.

The work upon which Heinse's fame mainly rests is _Ardinghello und die

gluckseligen Inseln_ (1787), a novel which forms the framework for the

exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being laid in the

Italy of the 16th century. This and his other novels _Laidion, oder die

eleusinischen Geheimnisse_ (1774) and _Hildegard von Hohenthal_ (1796)

combine the frank voluptuousness of Wieland with the enthusiasm of the

"Sturm und Drang." Both as novelist and art critic, Heinse had

considerable influence on the romantic school.

Heinse's complete works (_Samtliche Schriften_) were published by H.

Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schuddekopf is

in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Prohle,

_Lessing, Wieland, Heinse_ (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, _Johann

Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1882);

also K. D. Jessen, _Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst_ (Berlin,

1903).

HEINSIUS (or HEINS) DANIEL (1580-1655), one of the most famous scholars

of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent on the 9th of June 1580. The

troubles of the Spanish war drove his parents to settle first at Veere

in Zeeland, then in England, next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In

1594, being already remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the

university of Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus

Schotanus. He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden

for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under Joseph

Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde, Janus Douza, Paulus

Merula and others, and was soon taken into the society of these

celebrated men as their equal. His proficiency in the classic languages

won the praise of all the best scholars of Europe, and offers were made

to him, but in vain, to accept honourable positions outside Holland. He

soon rose in dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made

professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of

Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian to

the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of his

productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February 1655. The

Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer Visscher, but

attains no very high excellence. It was, however, greatly admired by

Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius, and who, in translating the

poetry of the latter, introduced the German public to the use of the

rhyming alexandrine.

He published his original Latin poems in three volumes--_Iambi_

(1602), _Elegiae_ (1603) and _Poemata_ (1605); his _Emblemata

amatoria_, poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In

the same year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited

Hesiod in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin _Orations_. In 1610 he

edited Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in

Dutch his tragedy of _The Massacre of the Innocents_; and in 1614 his

treatise _De politico sapientia_. In 1616 he collected his original

Dutch poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620,

published his oration _De contemptu mortis_ in 1621, and brought out

the _Epistles_ of Joseph Scaliger in 1627.

HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of Daniel Heinsius,

was born at Leiden on the 20th of July 1620. His boyish Latin poem of

_Breda expugnata_ was printed in 1637, and attracted much attention. In

1642 he began his wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS.

of the classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English

scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his health

restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing through

Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to Leiden, everywhere

collating MSS. and taking philological and textual notes. Almost

immediately he set out again, and arriving in Paris was welcomed with

open arms by the French savants. After investigating all the classical

texts he could lay hands on, he proceeded southwards, and visited on the

same quest Lyons, Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a

new edition of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples,

from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued his

labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which latter city he

published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse entitled _Italica_.

He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a considerable time in the

Ambrosian library; he was preparing to explore Switzerland in the same

patient manner, when the news of his father's illness recalled him

hurriedly to Leiden. He was soon called away to Stockholm at the

invitation of Queen Christina, at whose court he waged war with

Salmasius, who accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the

life of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit

to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In 1651 he

once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was divided between

Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin poems into a volume in 1653.

His latest labours were the editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and

of Valerius Flaccus in 1680. He died at the Hague on the 7th of October

1681. Nikolaes Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of

Latinists, and if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of

his father, he displayed higher gifts as an original writer.

His illegitimate son, NIKOLAES HEINSIUS (b. 1655), was the author of

_The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor_ (1675), the

single Dutch romance of the 17th century. He had to flee the country in

1677 for committing a murder in the streets of the Hague, and died in

obscurity.

HEIR (Lat. _heres_, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in _herus_ or

_erus_, master of a house, Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, Sans, _harana_,

hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an estate of

inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds to personal

property, i.e. next of kin. The word is now used generally to denote the

person who is entitled by law to inherit property, titles, &c., of

another. The rules regulating the descent of property to an heir will be

found in the articles INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION, &c.

An _heir apparent_ (Lat. _apparens_, manifest) is he whose right of

inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor, e.g. an

eldest or only son.

_Heir by custom_, or customary heir, he who inherits by a particular and

local custom, as in borough-English, whereby the youngest son inherits,

or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons inherit as parceners, and made but

one heir.

_Heir general_, or heir at law, he who after the death of his ancestor

has, by law, the right to the inheritance.

_Heir presumptive_, one who is next in succession, but whose right is

defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, e.g. a brother or nephew,

whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth of a child, or a

daughter, whose right may be defeated by the birth of a son.

_Special heir_, one not heir at law (i.e. at common law), but by special

custom.

_Ultimate heir_, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of proper

heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word "heir" is not confined

to the succession to real property, but includes succession to personal

property as well.

HEIRLOOM, strictly so called in English law, a chattel ("loom" meaning

originally a tool) which by immemorial usage is regarded as annexed by

inheritance to a family estate. Any owner of such heirloom may dispose

of it during his lifetime, but he cannot bequeath it by will away from

the estate. If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he

devises the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such

heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a secondary and

popular meaning and is applied to furniture, pictures, &c., vested in

trustees to hold on trust for the person for the time being entitled to

the possession of a settled house. Such things are more properly called

settled chattels. An heirloom in the strict sense is made by family

custom, not by settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land

Act 1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money

arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only sanction

such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all parties

concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of unique or

historical character, it will have regard to the intention of the

settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re _Hope_, _De Cetto_ v.

_Hope_, 1899, 2 ch. 679).

HEJAZ (HIJAZ), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western Arabia,

extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba in

29 deg. 30' N. to the south of Taif in 20 deg. N. It is bounded N. by

Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and S. by Asir. Its length is

about 750 m. and its greatest breadth from the Harra east of Khaibar to

the coast is 200 m. The name Hejaz, which signifies "separating," is

sometimes limited to the region extending from Medina in the north to

Taif in the south, which separates the island province Nejd from the

Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities, both Arab and

European, define it in the wider sense. Though physically the most

desolate and uninviting province in Arabia, it has a special interest

and importance as containing the two sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and

Medina (q.v.), respectively the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet,

which are visited yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all

parts of the world.

Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama range of mountains into

two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader upland. This range attains

its greatest height in Jebel Shar, the Mount Seir of scripture,

overlooking the Midian coast, which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel

Radhwa a little N.E. of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by

several valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the

principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which is on the

Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi Jizil drains the

Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes from the neighbourhood of

Medina. Farther south the Wadi es Safra cuts through the mountains and

affords the principal access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or

Jidda. None of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are

liable to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of

date-palms and occasional settlements are met with along their courses

wherever permanent springs are found. The northern part of Hejaz

contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha and El Wijh are small

ports used by coasting craft. The last named was formerly an important

station on the Egyptian pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman

settlement, and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the

east. Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian

border at Ma'an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts known as

_harra_ begin, and extend southwards along the western borders of the

Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East of Jebel Awerid lies

the oasis of Tema, identified with the Biblical Teman, which belongs to

the Shammar tribe; its fertility depends on the famous well, known as

Bir el Hudaj. Farther south and on the main pilgrim route is El 'Ala,

the principal settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was

known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road. Higher up the

same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina Salih, similar to those at

Petra and shown by the Nabataean coins and inscriptions discovered there

by Doughty and Huber to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To

the south-east again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500

inhabitants, chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave

population. The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the

tradition of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there

are no settled villages between Ma'an and Medina, the stations on the

pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with reservoirs, at

intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the Turkish government

for the protection of the yearly caravan.

The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature. Medina is

a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a broad plain

between the coast range and the low hills across which lies the road to

Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about 2500 ft. It is well supplied

with water and is surrounded by gardens and plantations; barley and

wheat are grown, but the staple produce, as in all the cultivated

districts of Hejaz, is dates, of which 100 different sorts are said to

grow. Yambu' has a certain importance as the port for Medina. The route

follows for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains

several small settlements with abundant date groves; from Badr Hunen,

the last of these, the route usually taken from Medina to Mecca runs

near the coast, passing villages with some cultivation at each stage.

The eastern route though more direct is less used; it passes through a

barren country described by Burton as a succession of low plains and

basins surrounded by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the

predominant formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only

villages of importance on this route.

Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a separate

article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the most important

trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great majority of pilgrims for

Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their transport and the supply of their

wants is therefore the chief business of the place; in 1904 the number

was 66,500, and the imports amounted in value to L1,400,000.

From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country rises

steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-level, a

district resembling in climate and physical character the highlands of

Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern edge of the plateau is a

fertile well-watered district, producing wheat and barley and fruit.

Taif, a day's journey farther south, lies in a sandy plain, surrounded

by low mountains. The houses, though small, are well built of stone; the

gardens for which it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more

to the S.W. at the foot of the mountains.

Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on the

overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under Egyptian

domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517 a dependency of the

Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the title of Caliph, neither Salim I.

nor his successors interfered much in the government, which remained in

the hands of the sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which

culminated at the beginning of the 19th century in the pillage of the

holy cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, was

entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order, and after

several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed and their capital

Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in 1817. Hejaz remained in

Egyptian occupation until 1845, when its administration was taken over

directly by Constantinople, and it was constituted a vilayet under a

vali or governor-general. The population is estimated at 300,000, about

half of which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin,

leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the Sherarat,

Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena between Yambu' and

Medina, and the various sections of the Harb throughout the centre and

south; the Ateba also touch the Mecca border on the south-east. All

these tribes receive surra or money payments of large amount from the

Turkish government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage,

otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish

administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons. The

troops occupying these latter belong to the 16th (Hejaz) division of the

Turkish army.

The Hejaz railway.

The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces, and of

relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the sultan Abdul

Hamid in 1900 to undertake the construction of a railway directly

connecting the Hejaz cities with Damascus without the necessity of

leaving Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required by the Suez

Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901 and on the 1st of

September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma'an (285 m.) was officially

opened. The line has a narrow gauge of 1.05 metre = 41 in., the same

gauge as that of the Damascus-Beirut line; it has a ruling gradient of 1

in 50 and follows generally the pilgrim track, through a desert country

presenting no serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties

due to the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour

were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed to El Akhdar,

470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina, In time to be used by the

pilgrim caravan of that year; and the section to Medina was opened in

1908. Its military value was shown in the previous year, when it

conveyed 28 battalions from Damascus to Ma'an, from which station the

troops marched to Akaba for embarkation _en route_ to Hodeda. The length

of the line from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from

Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about 4000 ft. at

Dar el Hamra in the section Ma'an-Medina.

AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829);

'Ali Bey, _Travels_ (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to

Medinah and Mecca_ (1893); _Land of Midian_ (London, 1879); J. S.

Hurgronje, _Mekka_ (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_

(Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, _Die Hedschasbahn_ (Gotha, 1906).

(R. A. W.)

HEJIRA,[1] or HEGIRA (Arab. _hijra_, flight, departure from one's

country, from _hajara_, to go away), the name of the Mahommedan era. It

dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet "fled" from Mecca to Medina to

escape the persecution of his kinsmen of the Koreish tribe. The years of

this era are distinguished by the initials "A.H." (_anno hegirae_). The

Mahommedan year is a lunar one, about 11 days shorter than the

Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating _Hegira_ dates

into Christian dates; thus A.H. 1321 corresponds roughly to A.D. 1903.

The actual date of the "flight" is fixed as 8 Rabia I., i.e. 20th of

September 622, by the tradition that Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the

Hebrew Day of Atonement. Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated

events by his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the

actual era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph (see CALIPHATE),

as beginning from the 1st day of Muharram (the first lunar month of the

year) which in that year (639) corresponded to July 16. The term

_hejira_ is also applied in its more general sense to other

"emigrations" of the faithful, e.g. to that to Abyssinia (see MAHOMET),

and to that of Mahomet's followers to Medina before the capture of

Mecca. These latter are known as _Muhajirun_.

For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables of dates

see (beside the articles CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY and MAHOMET),

Wustenfeld, _Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen und

christlichen Zeitrechnung_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latrie,

_Tresor de chronologie_ (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, _Universal Calendar_

(Cairo, 1896); Winckler, _Altorientalische Forschungen_, ii. 326-350;

D. Nielson, _Die altarabische Mondreligion_ (Strassburg, 1904);

Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. "Hijrah."