[1] In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 _Israelite_ should be _Ishmaelite_, as in the
parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17.
[2] See Zimmern, in _Ztsch. fur Assyriol._ (1891), p. 154.
[3] See Gesenius-Kautzsch, _Hebr. Gram._ S 17 c.
HEBREW LITERATURE. Properly speaking, "Hebrew Literature" denotes all
works written in the Hebrew language. In catalogues and bibliographies,
however, the expression is now generally used, conveniently if
incorrectly, as synonymous with Jewish literature, including all works
written by Jews in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic,
Arabic or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew.
Old Testament-Scriptures.
The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old
Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times popular songs
orally transmitted and perhaps books of annals and laws, but except in
so far as remnants of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have
entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of the Lord is mentioned
in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the
Song of the Well is quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon
and Moab, ib. 27-30; of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As
in other literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on
which greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of
literary criticism to show the way in which the component parts were
welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses was the
author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would make this the
earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern inquiry, however, has
arrived at other conclusions (see BIBLE, _Old Testament_), which may be
briefly summarized as follows: the Pentateuch is compiled from various
documents, the earliest of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii.
4) from the fact that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah
(Yahweh). Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.C.[1] In the next
century the document E was composed, so called from its using Elohim
(God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are considered to have
originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel, where also in the 8th
century appeared the prophets Amos and Hosea. To the same period belong
the book of Micah, the earlier parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah
and of Proverbs, and perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. Samaria was taken
and the Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is
not until a century later that any important literary activity is again
manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy was "found" shortly
before 621 B.C. and about the same time appeared the prophets Jeremiah
and Zephaniah, and perhaps the book of Ruth. A few years later (about
600) the two Pentateuchal documents J and E were woven together, the
books of Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the
Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem was taken by
Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was among the exiles with
Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the combined document JE was edited
by a writer under the influence of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the
books of Samuel were written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah,
Haggai, Zechariah and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but
probably after 500 B.C., an important section of the Hexateuch, usually
called the Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the same
century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic parts of
Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song of Songs. The
Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed in its present form at
some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts of the Old Testament are the
books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), Ecclesiastes and
Esther (3rd century) and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or
according to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (c.
168 B.C.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence,
from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing.
The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection was formed
gradually and that the process was going on during most of the period
sketched above.
Apocryphal literature.
Targum.
It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament were
immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were ever all regarded as
being on the same level. The Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held
among the Jews of the 4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre-eminent
position. The inclusion of other books in the Canon was gradual, and was
effected only after centuries of debate. The Jews have always been,
however, an intensely literary people, and the books ultimately accepted
as canonical were only a selection from the literature in existence at
the beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving little
attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have survived only
in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. Hence from the
composition of the latest canonical books to the redaction of the Mishna
(see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the remains of Hebrew literature
are very scanty. Of books of this period which are known to have existed
in Hebrew or Aramaic up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now
possess most of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in
a somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension
of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered within
recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there was also being
formed during this period a large body of exegetical and legal material,
for the most part orally transmitted, which only received its literary
form much later. As Hebrew became less familiar to the people, a system
of translating the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by
verse, was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed
to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt originally
extemporary, and varied with the individual translators, but its form
gradually became fixed and was ultimately written down. It was called
_Targum_, from the Aramaic _targem_, to translate. The earliest to be
thus edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelos), the proselyte, on the
Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the 3rd century
A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same date, clearly rests on the
same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos was another Targum on the Law,
generally called pseudo-Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in
Palestine, and is based on the same system of interpretation but is
fuller and closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary
Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is obscure. It
may be only a series of disconnected glosses on Onkelos. For the other
books, the recognized Targum on the Prophets is that ascribed to
Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?), which originated in Palestine, but
was edited in Babylonia, so that it has the same history and linguistic
character as Onkelos. Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law
parallel to the Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum
(called _Yerushalmi_) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel,
but of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being alone
used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized version
of the rest of the Canon. There are, however, Targumim on the Psalms and
Job, composed in the 5th century, on Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta
version, on the five Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in
character, and on Chronicles--all Palestinian. There is also a second
Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.
Halakhah.
We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period which followed
the later canonical books, not only was translation, and therefore
exegesis, cultivated, but even more the amplification of the Law.
According to Jewish teaching (e.g. Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on Mount
Sinai not only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also
the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70 elders and
through them by a "chain of tradition" to succeeding ages. The
application of this oral law is called _Halakhah_, the rules by which a
man's daily "walk" is regulated. The halakhah was by no means inferior
in prestige to the written Law. Indeed some teachers even went so far as
to ascribe a higher value to it, since it comes into closer relation
with the details of everyday life. It was not independent of the written
Law, still less could it be in opposition to it. Rather it was
implicitly contained in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to
show this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of
tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is traced
through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sopherim or scribes,
who handed on the charge to the "men of the Great Synagogue," a
much-discussed term for a body or succession of teachers inaugurated by
Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the Just (either Simon I., who died
about 300 B.C., or Simon II., who died about 200 B.C.), was the first of
the next series, called Elders, represented in the tradition by _pairs_
of teachers, ending with Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the
Christian era. Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series,
the Tannaim (from Aram. _tena_ to teach), who occupy the first two
centuries A.D.
Mishnah.
By this time the collection of halakhic material had become very large
and various, and after several attempts had been made to reduce it to
uniformity, a code of oral tradition was finally drawn up in the 2nd
century by Judah ha-Nasi, called Rabbi _par excellence_. This was the
Mishnah. Its name is derived from the Hebrew _shanah_, corresponding to
the Aramaic _tena_, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work,
meaning the _repetition_ or _teaching_ of the oral law. It is written in
the Hebrew of the schools (_leshon hakhamim_) which differs in many
respects from that of the Old Testament (see HEBREW LANGUAGE). It is
divided into six "orders," according to subject, and each order is
subdivided into chapters. In making his selection of halakhoth, Rabbi
used the earlier compilations, which are quoted as "words of Rabbi
'Aqiba" or of R. Me'ir, but rejected much which was afterwards collected
under the title of Tosefta (_addition_) and Baraita (_outside_ the
Mishnah).
Midrash.
Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah. As observed
above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the connexion of
practical rules with the written Law, the more so since the Sadducees
rejected the authority of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash,
_exposition_, from _darash_ to "investigate" a scriptural passage. Of
this halakhic Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that
on Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy, called
Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the Amoraim, the
order of teachers who succeeded the Tannaim, from the close of the
Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term Midrash, however, more commonly
implies _agada_, i.e. the homiletical exposition of the text, with
illustrations designed to make it more attractive to the readers or
hearers. Picturesque teaching of this kind was always popular, and
specimens of it are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a
method, with the Sopherim (though there are traces in the Old Testament
itself), and was most developed among the Tannaim and Amoraim, rivalling
even the study of halakhah. As the existing halakhoth were collected and
edited in the Mishnah, so the much larger agadic material was gathered
together and arranged in the Midrashim. Apart from the agadic parts of
the earlier Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these
collections (which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary
on various books of the Bible. They were called _Rabboth_ (_great_
Midrashim) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections.
_Bereshith Rabba_, on Genesis, and _Ekhah Rabbati_, on Lamentations,
were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same character and of
about the same date are the _Pesiqta_, on the lessons for Sabbaths and
feast-days, and _Wayyiqra R._ on Leviticus. A century perhaps later is
the _Tanhuma_, on the sections of the Pentateuch, and later still the
_Pesiqta Rabbati_, _Shemoth R._ (on Exodus), _Bemidhbar R._ (on
Numbers), _Debharim R._ (on Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashim on
the Canticle, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to
this later period, the _Pirqe R. Eliezer_, of the 8th or 9th century, a
sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the _Tanna debe
Eliyahu_ (an ethical work of the 10th century but containing much that
is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.[2] In general,
these performed very much the same function as the lives of saints in
the early and medieval church. Very important for the study of Midrashic
literature are the _Yalqut (gleaning) Shim'oni_, on the whole Bible, the
_Yalqut Mekhiri_, on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the
_Midrash ha-gadhol_,[3] all of which are of uncertain but late date and
preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS. from
Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent tradition.
Talmud.
Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries following the
redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah was by no means
neglected. As the discussion of the Law led up to the compilation of the
Mishnah, so the Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further
discussion. The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic,
forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, was eventually
written down under the name of _Gemara_ (from _gemar_, to learn
completely), the two together forming the _Talmud_ (properly
"_instruction_"). The tradition, as in the case of the Targums, was
again twofold; that which had grown up in the Palestinian Schools and
that of Babylonia. The foundation, however, the Mishnah, was the same in
both. Both works were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about
A.D. 500, though the date at which they were actually committed to
writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections were
from time to time written down to help in teaching and learning the
immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that even in Sherira's
time (11th century) such aids to memory were not officially recognized.
Both Talmuds are arranged according to the six orders of the Mishnah,
but the discussion of the Mishnic text often wanders off into widely
different topics. Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian
Talmud (_Yerushalmi_) the gemara of the 5th order (_Qodashim_) and of
nearly all the 6th (_Tohoroth_) is missing, besides smaller parts. In
the Babylonian Talmud (_Babhli_) there is no gemara to the smaller
tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The language of
both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular (western Aramaic in
Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early halakhic traditions (e.g. of
Tannaitic origin) are given in their original form, and the discussion
of them is usually also in Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk
than Yerushalmi, but has also received far greater attention, so that
the name Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object
of study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud from the
earliest times till the present. The most important of them for the
understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of Rashi[4] (Solomon ben
Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tosafoth (_additions_, not to be confused with
the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school of rabbis following Rashi.
These are always printed in the editions on the same page as the Mishnah
and Gemara, the whole, with various other matter, filling generally
about 12 folio volumes. Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud
is always cited by the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice,
1520, &c.), to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to
facilitate the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that
abridgements of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned which
are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac Alfasi (i.e. of
Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish manner as _Rif_; and
that by Asher ben Yehiel (d. 1328) of Toledo, usually cited as _Rabbenu
Asher_. The object of both was to collect all halakhoth having a
practical importance, omitting all those which owing to circumstances no
longer possess more than an academic interest, and excluding the
discussions on them and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of
their own, and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries.
Masorah.
With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature may be
considered to end. Henceforward important works are produced not by
schools but by particular teachers, who, however, no doubt often
represent the opinions of a school. There are two branches of work which
partake of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name
Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from _masar_, to hand on, and
explained as "tradition." According to others[5] it is the word found in
Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a "fetter." Its object was to fix the biblical
text unalterably. It is generally divided into the Great and the Small
Masorah, forming together an _apparatus criticus_ which grew up
gradually in the course of centuries and now accompanies the text in
most MSS. and printed editions to a greater or less extent. There are
also separate masoretic treatises. Some system of the kind was necessary
to guard against corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon
it no doubt reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text.
Many apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the
marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in enabling
copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work done. The registration
of anomalies, such as the suspended letters, inverted _nuns_ and larger
letters, enabled any one to test the accuracy of a copy. But the work of
the Masoretes was much greater than this. Their long lists of the
occurrences of words and forms fixed with accuracy the present
(Masoretic) text, which they had produced, and were invaluable to
subsequent lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and
accents not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading
traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves also the
purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further under BIBLE.) Most of
the Masorah is anonymous, including the _Massekheth Soferim_ (of various
dates from perhaps the 6th to the 9th century) and the _Okhlah
we-Okhlah_, but when the period of anonymous literature ceases, there
appear (in the 10th century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest
authority on the subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on,
Jacob ben Hayyim arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible of
1524. Elias Levita's _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ (1538) and Buxtorf's
_Tiberias_ (1620) are also important.
Liturgy.
We must now turn back to a most difficult subject--the growth of the
Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications of the ritual used
in the Temple. Of the prayer-book as it is at present, the earliest
parts are the Shema' (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings
commonly called Shemoneh 'Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain
Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphtarah] also formed
part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, from time to time,
various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The
earliest existing codification of the prayer-book is the _Siddur_
(_order_) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura about 850. Half a century later
the famous Gaon Seadiah, also of Sura, issued his _Siddur_, in which the
rubrical matter is in Arabic. Besides the _Siddur_, or order for
Sabbaths and general use, there is the _Mahzor_ (_cycle_) for festivals
and fasts. In both there are ritual differences according to the
Sephardic (Spanish), Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South
Italian) and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The
Mahzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (_piyyutim_) composed
by authors (_payyetanim_) of the district. The most important writers
are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his
compositions for the day of Atonement, Eleazar Qalir, the founder of the
payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish
school consisting of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac
Gayyath, Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will be
mentioned below; later, Moses ben Nahman and Isaac Luria the
Kabbalist.[6]
The Geonim.
The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the Talmud (A.D.
500), was succeeded by that of the Saboraim, who merely continued and
explained the work of their predecessors, and these again were followed
by the Geonim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha in
Babylonia. The office of Gaon lasted for something over 400 years,
beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in importance according to the
ability of the holders of it. Individual Geonim produced valuable works
(of which later), but what is perhaps most important from the point of
view of the development of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa
or answers to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them
from various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of
particular Geonim; others were an official summary of the discussion of
the subject by the members of the School. They begin with Mar Rab
Sheshna (7th century) and continue to Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and
are full of historical and literary interest.[7] The She'iltoth
(_questions_) of Rab Ahai (8th century) also belong probably to the
school of Pumbeditha, though their author was not Gaon. Besides the
Responsa, but closely related to them, we have the lesser Halakhoth of
Yehudai Gaon of Sura (8th century) and the great Halakhoth of Simeon
Qayyara of Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department
there is the first Talmud lexicon (_'Arukh_) now lost, by Zemah ben
Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The _Siddur_ of Amram ben
Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these writers, however, are
entirely eclipsed by the commanding personality of the most famous of
the Geonim, SEADIAH ben Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyumi
(of the Fayum in Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish
learning of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the
office were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was the
author of the famous "Letter" (in the form of a Responsum to a question
addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an historical document of
the highest value and the foundation of our knowledge of the history of
tradition. His son Hai, last Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide
learning, wrote (partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also
treatises on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon
called in Arabic _al-Hawi_, and poems such as the _Musar Haskel_, but
most of them are now lost or known only from translations or quotations.
Though his teaching was largely directed against superstition, he seems
to have been inclined to mysticism, and perhaps for this reason various
kabbalistic works were ascribed to him in later times. His father-in-law
Samuel ben Hophni, last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer
on law, translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of the
Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud, of which the
existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid) is perhaps a
translation. Most of his works are now lost.
The Karaites.
In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of the Karaites
(_Bene miqra_), "followers of the Scripture", the protestants of
Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority, basing their doctrine and
practice exclusively on the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Anan in the
8th century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their
literature, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical
and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of their first
important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel al-Qumisi (both in
the 9th century), little is preserved. In the 10th century Jacob
al-Qirqisani wrote his _Kitab al-anwar_, on law, Solomon ben Yeruham
(against Seadiah) and Yefet ben 'Ali wrote exegetical works; in the 11th
century Abu'l-faraj Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-Basir against Samuel
ben Hophni. Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in S.
Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his _Eshkol ha-Kopher_, a great
theological compendium in the form of a commentary on the Decalogue.
Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph, 13th century, who wrote
the commentary _Sepher ha-mibhhar_; Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia
(14th century), author of _'Ez Hayyim_, on philosophy, _Gan 'Eden_, on
law, and the commentary _Kether Torah_; in the 15th century Elijah
Bashyazi, on law (_Addereth Eliyahu_), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and
theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashyazi, theologian. From the
12th century onward the sect gradually declined, being ultimately
restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania, learning disappeared and
their literature became merely popular and of little interest. Much of
it in later times was written in a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need
only be made further of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic
_Hizzuq Emunah_ (1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta
under the title of _Faith Strengthened_ (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose
_Appiryon_, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of
Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite of his
impostures, did much for the literature of his people about the middle
of the 19th century. (See also QARAITES.)
Medieval scholarship.
To return to the period of the Geonim. While the schools of Babylonia
were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism, the West, and
especially Spain under Moorish rule, was becoming the home of Jewish
scholarship. On the breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives
fled to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning there. The
communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in close relation with
those of Spain, and as early as the beginning of the 9th century Judah
ben Quraish of Tahort had composed his _Risalah_ (_letter_) to the Jews
of Fez on grammatical subjects from a comparative point of view, and a
dictionary now lost. His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem
ben Saruq, of Cordova, in his _Mahbereth_ (dictionary). Menahem's system
of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by Dunash ibn
Labrat, and as violently defended by the author's pupils. Among these
was Judah Hayyuj of Cordova, the father of modern Hebrew grammar, who
first established the principle of tri-literal roots. His treatises on
the verbs, written in Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses
Giqatilla (11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and
commentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by Abu'l-walid ibn
Jannah, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th century), in his lexicon
(_Kitab al-usul_, in Arabic) and other works. In Italy appeared the
invaluable Talmud-lexicon (_'Arukh_) by Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d.
1106), who was indirectly indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not
strictly follow the system of Hayyuj. Other works of a different kind
also originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history of
the Jews, called _Josippon_ (probably of the 10th or even 9th century),
ascribed to Joseph ben Gorion (Gorionides)[8]; the medical treatises of
Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his commentary on the _Sepher
Yezirah_, the anonymous and earliest Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to
the patriarch Abraham. In North Africa, probably in the 9th century,
appeared the book known under the name of _Eldad ha-Dani_, giving an
account of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was
derived;[9] and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of
Isaac Israeli, who died in 932.
Exegesis.
The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was ultimately
exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the East. In the 9th
century Hivi of Balkh wrote a rationalistic treatise[10] on difficulties
in the Bible, which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the
Geonim have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the
West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century Hushiel, one of four
prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is doubtful, was ransomed
and settled at Kairawan, where he acquired great reputation as a
Talmudist. His son Hananeel (d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably
all) the Talmud, and one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's
contemporary Nissim ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai
Gaon of Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagid in Spain, likewise
wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection of
_Ma'asiyyoth_ or edifying stories, besides works now lost. The activity
in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most prominent figure was
that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), generally known as Samuel the
Nagid or head of the Jewish settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to
the Moorish king at Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but
himself a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some of his
poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud mentioned above. In
grammar he followed Hayyuj, whose pupil he was. Among others he was the
patron of Solomon ibn Gabirol (q.v.), the poet and philosopher. To this
period belong Hafz al-Quti (the Goth?) who made a version of the Psalms
in Arabic rhyme, and Bahya (more correctly Behai) ibn Paquda, dayyan at
Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise has always had great popularity
among the Jews in its Hebrew translation, _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. He
also composed liturgical poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn
Bal'am wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch,
Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089 at
Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already mentioned.
Rashi.
The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important. Gershom
ben Judah, the "Light of the Exile" (d. in 1040 at Mainz), a famous
Talmudist and commentator, his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of
Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the "Exegete," were the forerunners of the
greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi), who died
at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at
Worms and Mainz. Unlike his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have
confined himself wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of
Arabic or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator
is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study of the
Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented on all the Bible and
on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself the text of several
super-commentaries, and has exercised great influence on Christian
exegesis. The biblical commentary was translated into Latin by
Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on the Pentateuch rather freely into
German by L. Dukes (Prag, 1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the
text), and parts by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his
school, are Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator, and
his teacher Menahem ben Helbo, Jacob ben Me'ir, called Rabbenu Tam (d.
1171), the most important of the Tosaphists (_v. sup._), and later in
the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing Joseph Bekhor Shor, and
Samuel ben Me'ir (d. about 1174) of Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist.
In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in
Spain. Abraham bar Hiyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus
(d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much
studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140),
wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well
as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as
_'Arugath ha-bosem_, and the _Kitab al-Mahadarah_, of great value for
literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his _Diwan_ and
the _'Anaq_, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra,
generally called simply Ibn Ezra,[11] was still more distinguished. He
was born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to
England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his
great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible,
treatises on philosophy (as the _Yesodh mora_), astronomy, mathematics,
grammar (translation of Hayyuj), besides a Diwan. The man, however, who
shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place in Jewish poetry is Judah
Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both
secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the
liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic
he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation
_Sepher ha-Kuzari_, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish
philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of
Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph ibn Migash (d. 1141 at
Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa
and Hiddushin (_annotations_) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere
mention must be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after
1173), whose Massa'oth are of great value for the history and geography
of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of
Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his journeys.
Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), in philosophy an
Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of Maimonides, is
chiefly known for his _Sepher ha-qabbalah_, written as a polemic against
Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition.
Maimonides.
Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.
The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben Maimon
(Rambam), called _Maimonides_ by Christians. He was born at Cordova in
1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in
1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and
finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his
profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic
(including a commentary on the aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which
were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the
textbooks of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests
mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these
are the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic
original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of
the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the
Christian schoolmen, and the _Mishneh Torah_, also called _Yad
hahazaqah_ ([Hebrew: id] = 14, the number of the parts), a classified
compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew and early translated into
Arabic. The latter of these, though generally accepted in the East, was
much opposed in the West, especially at the time by the Talmudist
Abraham ben David of Posquieres (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an
Arabic commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into
Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now lost), and a treatise
on Logic. His breadth of view and his Aristotelianism were a
stumbling-block to the orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly
classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even his friend Joseph ibn
'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical treatise in Arabic and of a
commentary on the Song of Solomon, found so much difficulty in the new
views that the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ was written in order to convince him.
Maimonides' son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in
Arabic _Ma'aseh Yerushalmi_, on oaths, and _Kitab al-Kifayah_, theology.
His grandson David was also an author. A very different person was Moses
ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born at Gerona in 1194 and
died in Palestine about 1270. His whole tendency was as conservative as
that of Maimonides was liberal, and like all conservatives he may be
said to represent a lost though not necessarily a less desirable cause.
Much of his life was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in
1293 before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on the
views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary on the Pentateuch
in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. He had a strong inclination to
mysticism, but whether certain kabbalistic works are rightly attributed
to him is doubtful. It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two
great kabbalistic textbooks, the _Bahir_ and the _Zohar_ (both meaning
"brightness"), appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his
teaching they are at least in sympathy with it. The _Bahir_, a sort of
outline of the _Zohar_, and traditionally ascribed to Nehunya (1st
century), is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben
Abraham of Posquieres (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the
modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10 Sephiroth. The
_Zohar_, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yohai (2nd century), is now
generally attributed to Moses of Leon (d. 1305), who, however, drew his
material in part from earlier written or traditional sources, such as
the Sepher Yezirah. At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the
kabbalists, and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the
subject. Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, it
is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, and
incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the natural science of
the time. A pupil, though not a follower of Nahmanides, was Solomon
Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona (d. 1310), a prolific writer of
Talmudic and polemical works (against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as
well as of responsa. He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291)
and his pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous
kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of Saragossa (d.
1340) was the author of a very popular commentary on the Pentateuch and
of religious discourses entitled _Kad ha-qemah_, in both of which,
unlike his teacher, he made large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies,
however, were not neglected. In the first half of the 13th century,
Abraham ibn Hasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or
adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, among them
being the _Sepher ha-tappuah_, based on Aristotle's _de Anima_, and the
_Mozene Zedeq_ of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, of both of which the
originals are lost. Another Maimonist was Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera
(d. after 1290), philosopher (following Averroes), poet and author of a
commentary on the Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and
Aristotelianism is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose _Menorath
ha-Ma'or_, a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has
been frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th
century lived Judah al-Harizi, who belongs in spirit to the time of Ibn
Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, of Galen,
Aristotle, Hariri, Hunain ben Isaac and Maimonides, as well as several
original works, a _Sepher 'Anaq_ in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and
treatises on grammar and medicine (_Rephuath geviyyah_), but he is best
known for his _Tahkemoni_, a diwan in the style of Hariri's _Maqamat_.
Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on
those of France. The fact that many of the most important works were
written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the Moors,
which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of
translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or
Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya
ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides
writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to
Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at
Marseilles about 1230, was equally prolific. He translated the _Moreh
Nebhukhim_ during the life of the author, and with some help from him,
so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides'
commentary on the Mishnah tractate _Pirqe Abhoth_, and some minor works;
treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are
mostly biblical commentaries and some additional matter on the Moreh.
His son Moses, who died about the end of the 13th century, translated
the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna,
Euclid's _Elements_ (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's
_Viaticum_, medical works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi
(Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works
are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His nephew Jacob
ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific
works, such as parts of Averroes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the
Greek, as Euclid's _Data_, Autolycus, Menelaus (Hebrew: Milium) and
Theodosius on the Sphere, and Ptolemy's _Almagest_. He also compiled
astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance
of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into
Latin,[12] thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning accessible
to medieval Europe. Another important family about this time is that of
Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac
Qimhi was born, who migrated to S. France, probably for the same reason
which caused the flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He
wrote on grammar (_Sepher ha-galui_ and _Sepher Zikkaron_), commentaries
on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, _Sepher
ha-berith_, and a translation of Bahya's _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. His
son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries,
wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne
(d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the _Mikhlol_,
consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various parts of
the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian
remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely
influenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of
Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ramerupt (d.
1171), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the _Sepher ha-yashar_ (hiddushin
and responsa) and was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school
were Menahem ben Simeon of Posquieres, a commentator, who died about the
end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century),
author of the _Semag_ (book of precepts, positive and negative) a very
popular and valuable halakhic work. A younger contemporary of David
Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e. of Beziers), the poet, and
some time in the 13th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose
ethical poem, _Qe'arath Yoseph_, was translated by Reuchlin and later by
others. Berachiah,[13] the compiler of the "Fox Fables" (which have much
in common with the "Ysopet" of Marie de France), is generally thought to
have lived in Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in
England in the 12th century. In Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d.
1238), besides being a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic
studies. Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France,
wrote the famous _Or Zarua'_ (from which he is often called), an
halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' _Mishneh Torah_, but more
diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at
Wurzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The
latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his
Responsa, but also for his halakhic treatises, hiddushin and tosaphoth.
He also composed a number of piyyutim. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben
Hillel of Nurnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his
halakhic work, usually known as the _Mordekhai_. This is a codification
of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now
lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mordecai was left
to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an
Eastern (in Austria) and a Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the
East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not
to be confounded with the _Midrash Tanhuma_) on many books of the Bible,
and of an extensive lexicon (_Kitab al-Murshid_) to the Mishnah, all in
Arabic.
With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the
limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over
again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to
be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in
the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most
notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome
(d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante,
wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-'Eden," is
suggested by the _Divina Commedia_. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo
(d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual
and a commentary on _Pirqe Abhoth_. About the same time Isaac Israeli
wrote his _Yesodh 'Olam_ and other astronomical works which were much
studied. Asher ben Jehiel, a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the
author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as _Rabbenu
Asher_, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He
migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His
son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the _Tur_ (or the four
Turim), a most important manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement
of the _Mishneh Torah_ brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of
Seville (d. after 1340), wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the
14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy,
as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about
1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah
Bedersi, i.e. of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (_Behinath
ha-'olam_), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against
Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great
commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of
Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also
many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of
Largentiere (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and
philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyutim. In the first
half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David
and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of
Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing
original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled
_Eben Bohan_. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat
Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist
(letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (_Ma'aseh Efod_)
and a commentary on the Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian.
About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas
(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his _Or Adonai_ against the
Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his
_'Iqqarim_ had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was
Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his _Magen Abhoth_ and in his
numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a
strong anti-Maimonist, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a
commentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle,
Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the
contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other
subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), is
chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn
Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician and astronomer;
Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote _Shebet Yehudah_, of doubtful
value historically; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after
1510), astronomer, wrote the _Sepher Yuhasin_, an historical work of
importance. In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his
very useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi and
Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are also of great
interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries (not of the first
rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the Moreh, philosophical
treatises and apologetics, such as the _Yeshu'oth Meshiho_, all of which
had considerable influence. Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a
strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical
treatise _Behinath ha-dath_, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in
Latin.
Later writers.
The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi,
Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and
proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim
of Tunis (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his
masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction
to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg,
author of the _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ and other works on grammar and
lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In
the East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his _Beth Yoseph_ (Venice, 1550), a
commentary on the _Tur_, and his _Shulhan 'Arukh_ (Venice, 1564) an
halakhic work like the _Tur_, which is still a standard authority. The
influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of
Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his _Me'or
'Enayim_ (Mantua, 1573) Del Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish
history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities,
and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another
historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose _Dibhre
ha-yamim_ (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his
_'Emeq ha-bakhah_ an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In
Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work
_Zemah David_ (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the
practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572).
Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by
his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was
Hayyim Vital, author of the _'Ez hayyim_, and his son Samuel, who wrote
an introduction to the Kabbalah, called _Shemoneh She'arim_. To the same
school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist.
Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero
(d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the _Pardes Rimmonim_
(Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his
_Beth Yehudah_, and probably _Qol Sakhal_, against traditionalism,
besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of
Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also
connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author,
best known for the _Tosaphoth Yom Tobh_ on the Mishna (Prag, 1614;
Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of
Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the _Shulhan 'Arukh_. In the East, David
Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work _Qore ha-doroth_
(Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah,
kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote _Qol be-ramah_, a commentary on
the _Zohar_ and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly
remembered as a supporter of the would-be Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi,
wrote _Hod Malkuth_ (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th
century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim
Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d.
1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and
kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was
a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel
Ba'al Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son
Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash.
An historical work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the
_Seder ha-doroth_ of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong
in spirit to the previous century.
Modernizing tendencies.
The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour,
connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to bring Judaism more into
relation with external learning, and in using the Hebrew language to
purify and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. The
result, while linguistically more uniform and pleasing, often lacks the
spontaneity of medieval literature. It was Moses Mendelssohn's German
translation of the Pentateuch (1780-1793) which marked the new spirit,
while the views of his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the
controversy of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the
earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. One of the
most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was Mendelssohn's friend N. H.
Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805), author of _Shire Tiphe'reth_, a long poem
on the Exodus, _Dibhre Shalom_, a plea for liberalism, _Sepher
ha-middoth_, on ethics, besides philological works and commentaries. A
curious combination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807), a
kabbalist, but also the author of _Shem ha-gedholim_, a valuable
contribution to literary history.
In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to grow, though
always side by side with a strong conservative opposition, and the most
prominent names on both sides are those of scholars rather than literary
men. Among them may be mentioned, Akiba ('Aqibha) Eger (d. 1837),
Talmudist of the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832),
a liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Mahzor; N. Krochmal, of
Galicia (d. 1840), author of _Moreh Nebhukhe ha-zeman_, on Jewish
history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895), conservative
commentator and philosopher. One consequence of the Mendelssohn movement
was that many writers used their vernacular language besides or instead
of Hebrew, or translated from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio
(d. 1855), a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph
Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems into
Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished scholar and
opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote much in Italian; M. H.
Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated German poems into Hebrew; S.
Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891), was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon
(d. 1892), poet and prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal
views; A. Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob
Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The endeavour to
bring Judaism into relation with the modern world and to change the
current impressions about Jews by making their teaching accessible to
the rest of the world, is connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel
(d. 1875), the first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham
Geiger (d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L.
Dukes (d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary
history. Their most important works are in German. The question of the
use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the differences
between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties, complicated by
the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts are made to encourage the
use of Hebrew both for writing and speaking, but the continued existence
of it as a literary language depends on the direction in which the
future history of the Jews will develop.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Only the more comprehensive works are mentioned here,
omitting those relating to particular authors, and those already
cited.
Introductory: Abrahams, _Short History of Jewish Literature_ (London,
1906); Steinschneider, _Jewish Literature_ (London, 1857); Winter and
Wunsche, _Die judische Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1893-1895) (containing
selections translated into German).
For further study: Graetz, _Geschichte der Juden_ (Leipzig, 1853, &c.)
(the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to the
notes; English translation by B. Lowy (London, 1891-1892) (without the
notes); Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vortrage der Juden_ (new ed.,
Frankfort-on-Main, 1892); _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ (Berlin,
1845). The _Synagogale Poesie_ has been mentioned above.
Steinschneider, _Arabische Literatur der Juden_ (Frankfort-on-Main,
1902); _Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1893).
On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent monographs
in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (New York, 1901-6), to which the present
article is much indebted.
Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, _Catalogus libr.
Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana_ (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue);
Zedner, _Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum_ (London,
1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts:
Neubauer, _Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library_ (Oxford,
1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth,
_Catal. of the Hebr. ... MSS. in the British Museum_ (London, 1899,
&c.). Of both: Benjacob, _Ozar ha-sepharim_ (Wilna, 1880) (in Hebrew;
arranged by titles).
Periodicals: _Jewish Quarterly Review_; _Revue des etudes juives_;
_Hebraische Bibliographie_. (A. Cy.)