[1] _Units of Work, Energy and Power._--In English-speaking countries
work is generally measured in _foot-pounds_. Elsewhere it is
generally measured in _kilogrammetres_, or in terms of the work done
in raising 1 kilogramme weight through the height of 1 metre. In the
middle of the 19th century the terms "force" and "motive power" were
commonly employed in the sense of "power of doing work." The term
"energy" is now employed in this sense. A quantity of energy is
measured by the work it is capable of performing. A body may possess
energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under pressure), or in
virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various other ways,
when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess _potential
energy_. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or
rotation (as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said
to possess _kinetic energy_, or energy of motion. In many cases the
energy (as in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is
partly kinetic and partly potential, and changes continually from one
to the other throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a
pendulum is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the
top of its swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving
with its maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole
energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy,
and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the
vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W lb.
raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is Wh foot-pounds. If
allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on
reaching the earth would be Wh foot-pounds, and its velocity of
motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same velocity
it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have here a
simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy into
a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically
equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same units.
The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilogrammetres,
are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity. This is
the most obvious and natural method of measuring the potential energy
of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of varying with the
force of gravity at different places. The natural measure of the
kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of its mass by half
the square of its velocity, which gives a measure in kinetic or
absolute units independent of the force of gravity. Kinetic and
gravitational units are merely different ways of measuring the same
thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilogrammetres by
dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilogrammetre, so
kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by dividing by the
kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely, the work in
kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting through unit
distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to take account of
the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of energy is called the
_erg_. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass of 2 gm. moving with a
velocity of 1 cm. per sec. The work in ergs done by a force acting
through a distance of 1 cm. is the absolute measure of the force. A
force equal to the weight of 1 gm. (in England) acting through a
distance of 1 cm. does 981 ergs of work. A force equal to the weight
of 1000 gm. (1 kilogramme) acting through a distance of 1 metre (100
cm.) does 98.1 million ergs of work. As the erg is a very small unit,
for many purposes, a unit equal to 10 million ergs, called a _joule_,
is employed. In England, where the weight of 1 gm. is 981 ergs per
cm., a foot-pound is equal to 1.356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is
equal to 9.81 joules.
The term _power_ is now generally restricted to mean "rate of
working." Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising
550 lb. 1 ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550
foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This
conventional horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating
the power of engines. The _horse-power-hour_, or the work done by one
horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For
electrical and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is
called the _watt_. The watt is the work per second done by an
electromotive force of 1 volt in driving a current of 1 ampere, and
is equal to 10 million ergs or 1 joule per second. One horse-power is
746 watts or nearly 3/4 of a kilowatt. The _kilowatt-hour_, which is
the unit by which electrical energy is sold, is 3.6 million joules or
2.65 million foot-pounds, or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable
of raising nearly 19 lb. of water from the freezing to the boiling
point.
[2] In an essay on "Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light,"
republished in Sir H. Davy's _Collected Works_, ii. (London, 1836).
[3] For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a
cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the
same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the
thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said to
have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process,
because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition,
and could not be restored to its original state at the same
temperature without having work done upon it precisely equal to that
obtained by its expansion. The process could not be repeated
indefinitely without a continual supply of compressed air. The source
of the work in this case is work previously done in compressing the
air, and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of
heat alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature
than the expansion.
[4] Clausius (_Pogg. Ann._ 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted
this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat
required to produce any given change of state is independent of the
manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here
assume.
[5] Carnot's description of his cycle and statement of his principle
have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some
injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements.
[6] It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
stated (_Phil. Mag._, 1852, 4) that "Carnot's original demonstration
utterly fails," and that he introduced the "corrections" attributed
to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality Carnot's
original demonstration requires no correction.
[7] In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (_Phil. Mag._,
1862, p. 422; _Heat_, p. 385); "In the first place the plate of salt
nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments
are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables
the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface." He
therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential portions
of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat through
the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This reasoning
is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygroscopic and
becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour pressure is
greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the temperature
of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of the saturated salt
solution is only half that of pure water, it would require an
elevation of temperature of 10 deg. C. to dry the rocksalt plates in
saturated air at 15 deg. C. It is only fair to say that the laws of
the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall's time, and
that it was usual to assume that the plates would not become wetted
until the dew-point was reached. The writer has repeated Tyndall's
experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall's tubes in the
possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with plates of
rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall's, and therefore of the
same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvanometer in
conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker in its
action than Tyndall's pile, there appears to be hardly any difference
between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not more than
half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube as source of
heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a minute or two
and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to the thickness of
the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open tube method as
described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates, the absorption is
certainly less than 1% in 3 ft. of air saturated at 20 deg. C., unless
condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It is possible that
the walls of Tyndall's tube may have become covered with a very
hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride which he was
in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film would be
exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for the excessive
precautions which he found necessary in drying the air in order to
obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is probable that
Tyndall's experiments on aqueous vapour were effected by experimental
errors of this character.
HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766), English classical scholar and bibliophile,
was born at Exeter on the 20th of April 1704. He was the son of a
wealthy merchant, and was thus able to devote himself mainly to travel
and book-collecting. He became town clerk of his native city in 1752,
and held the office till his death on the 13th of September 1766. In
1763 he had published a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax
in Devonshire, and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a
classical scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical
notes on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary D.C.L.
from Oxford (31st of March 1752). He also left MS. notes on Burmann's
and Martyn's editions of Virgil, on Euripides, Catullus, Tibullus, and
the greater part of Hesiod. In some of these he adopts the whimsical
name Dexiades Ericius. His _Revisal of Shakespear's Text_ (1765) was an
answer to the "insolent dogmatism" of Bishop Warburton. _The Essay
towards a Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and
Attributes_ (1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire,
Rousseau and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were
Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George, headmaster of
Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works formed the nucleus
of his son Benjamin's famous library (Bibliotheca Heathiana).
An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake's
_Heathiana_ (1882).
HEATH, NICHOLAS (c. 1501-1578), archbishop of York and lord chancellor,
was born in London about 1501 and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He
then migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in
1520, M.A. in 1522, and was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor
preferments he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and
graduated D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (q.v.), bishop of
Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political
understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His selection for
this duty implies a readiness on Heath's part to proceed some distance
along the path of reform; but his dealings with the Lutherans did not
confirm this tendency, and Heath's subsequent career was closely
associated with the cause of reaction. In 1539, the year of the Six
Articles, he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded
Latimer at Worcester. His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type
than Gardiner's and Bonner's; he felt something of the force of the
national antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or
secular, and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity, so
far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made no
difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI., and he
accepted the first book of common prayer after it had been modified by
the House of Lords in a Catholic direction.
His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the grounds, on
which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the Catholicity of the
reformed English Church, namely, on the question of the Ordinal drawn up
in February 1550. Heath refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in
1551 deprived of his bishopric. On Mary's accession he was released and
restored, and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales. In
1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he did much to
enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built York House in the
Strand. After Gardiner's death he was appointed lord chancellor,
probably on Pole's recommendation; for Heath, like Pole himself,
disliked the Spanish party in England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to
have been averse from the excessive persecution of Mary's reign, and no
Protestants were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little
influence on Mary's secular or ecclesiastical policy.
On Mary's death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed Elizabeth. Like
Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely within the competence of
the national state, represented by parliament, to determine questions of
the succession to the throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his
commission as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council
for two months until the government had determined to complete the
breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as April 1559 he
assisted the government by helping to arrange the Westminster
Conference, and reproving his more truculent co-religionists. He refused
to crown Elizabeth because she would not have the coronation service
accompanied with the elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical
ceremonies and doctrine could not, in Heath's view, be altered or
abrogated by any mere national authority. Hence he steadily resisted
Elizabeth's acts of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced
in the acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry's bishops, he had
been convinced by the events of Edward VI.'s reign that Sir Thomas More
was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their attitude towards the claims
of the papacy and the Catholic Church. He was therefore necessarily
deprived of his archbishopric in 1559, but he remained loyal to
Elizabeth; and after a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the
remaining nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending
public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The queen visited
him more than once at his house at Chobham, Surrey; he died and was
buried there at the end of 1578.
AUTHORITIES.--Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy
Council; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and Venetian;
Kemp's Loseley MSS.; Froude's _History_; Burnet, Collier, Dixon and
Frere's _Church Histories_; Strype's _Works_ (General Index); Parker
Soc. Publications (Gough's Index); Birt's _Elizabethan Settlement_.
(A. F. P.)
HEATH, WILLIAM (1737-1814), American soldier, was born in Roxbury,
Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old style). He was brought up
as a farmer and had a passion for military exercises. In 1765 he entered
the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company of Boston, of which he
became commander in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the _Boston
Gazette_ letters signed "A Military Countryman," urging the necessity of
military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts General Court
from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of safety, and in
1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was commissioned a provincial
brig.-general in December 1774, directed the pursuit of the British from
Concord (April 19, 1775), was promoted to be provincial major-general on
the 20th of June 1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth
brig.-general in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the
9th of August 1776, and was in active service around New York until
early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to take Fort
Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned by about 2000
Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his troops became
panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew. Washington reprimanded
him and never again entrusted to him any important operation in the
field. Throughout the war, however, Heath was very efficient in muster
service and in the barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in
command of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and had
charge (Nov. 1777-Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from Burgoyne's
army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779 he was appointed a
commissioner of the Board of War. He was placed in command of the troops
on the E. side of the Hudson in June 1779, and of other troops and posts
on the Hudson in November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the
French allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in
October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of West Point
and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when Washington went south to
meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in command of the Army of the Hudson to
watch Clinton. After the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a
member of the state House of Representatives in 1788, of the
Massachusetts convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the
same year, and of the governor's council in 1789-1790, was a state
senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor of
Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on the 24th of
January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the War of American
Independence.
See _Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details of
Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American War,
written by Himself_ (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps the
best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William
Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington and
Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the controversies
with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston, and of
relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, _The Heath Papers_,
vols. iv.-v., seventh series, _Massachusetts Historical Society
Collections_ (Boston, 1904-1905).
HEATH, the English form of a name given in most Teutonic dialects to the
common ling or heather (_Calluna vulgaris_), but now applied to all
species of _Erica_, an extensive genus of monopetalous plants, belonging
to the order Ericaceae. The heaths are evergreen shrubs, with small
narrow leaves, in whorls usually set rather thickly on the shoots; the
persistent flowers have 4 sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular
corolla, in many species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry
capsule is 4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to
the middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the valves
separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of low growth, but
several African kinds reach the size of large bushes, and a common South
European species, _E. arborea_, occasionally attains almost the aspect
and dimensions of a tree.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. _Calluna vulgaris._]
One of the best known and most interesting of the family is the common
heath, heather or ling, _Calluna vulgaris_ (fig. 1), placed by most
botanists in a separate genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence of
the fruit, and from the coloured calyx, which extends beyond the
corolla, having a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This shrub derives
some economic importance from its forming the chief vegetation on many
of those extensive wastes that occupy so large a portion of the more
sterile lands of northern and western Europe, the usually desolate
appearance of which is enlivened in the latter part of summer by its
abundant pink blossoms. When growing erect to the height of 3 ft. or
more, as it often does in sheltered places, its purple stems,
close-leaved green shoots and feathery spikes of bell-shaped flowers
render it one of the handsomest of the heaths; but on the bleaker
elevations and more arid slopes it frequently rises only a few inches
above the ground. In all moorland countries the ling is applied to many
rural purposes; the larger stems are made into brooms, the shorter tied
up into bundles that serve as brushes, while the long trailing shoots
are woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots it forms
a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the drier moors. The
shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were formerly constructed of heath
stems, cemented together with peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar
with dry grass or straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are
still sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling. Laid on
the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft springy bed, the
luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly resorted to at times
by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker. The young shoots were in
former days employed as a substitute for hops in brewing, while their
astringency rendered them valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and
the Western Isles. They are said also to have been used by the
Highlanders for dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are
asserted to have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to
confuse the dyer's-weed, _Genista tinctoria_, with the heather. The
young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the capsules,
furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion of its
sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The tops of the ling
afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of the hill flocks, and
are popularly supposed to communicate the fine flavour to Welsh and
Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop heather while the mountain
grasses and rushes are sweet and accessible. Ling has been suggested as
a material for paper, but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for
that purpose. The purple or fine-leaved heath, _E. cinerea_ (fig. 2),
one of the most beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and
commons of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being
sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both these
species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply to the bees in
moorland districts; from this heath honey the Picts probably brewed the
mead said by Boetius to have been made from the flowers themselves.
The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater part
being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa, but it is
also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region, while several
species extend into northern Europe. No species is native in America,
but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the Atlantic side from
Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species occur in Britain: _E. cinerea_,
_E. tetralix_ (cross-leaved heath), both abundant on heaths and commons,
_E. vagans_, Cornish heath, found only in West Cornwall, _E. ciliaris_
in the west of England and Ireland and _E. mediterranea_ in Ireland. The
three last are south-west European species which reach the northern
limit of their distribution in the west of England and Ireland. _E.
scoparia_ is a common heath in the centre of France and elsewhere in the
Mediterranean region, forming a spreading bush several feet high. It is
known as _bruyere_, and its stout underground rootstocks yield the
briar-wood used for pipes.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. _Erica cinerea._]
The Cape heaths have long been favourite objects of horticulture. In the
warmer parts of Britain several will bear exposure to the cold of
ordinary winters in a sheltered border, but most need the protection of
the conservatory. They are sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly
multiplied by cuttings "struck" in sand, and afterwards transferred to
pots filled with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be
dry and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering
heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while they will
not bear much water about their roots: the heath-house should be light
and well ventilated, the plants requiring sun, and soon perishing in a
close or permanently damp atmosphere; in England little or no heat is
needed in ordinary seasons. The European heaths succeed well in English
gardens, only requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as
well as in their native localities: _E. carnea_, _mediterranea_,
_ciliaris_, _vagans_, and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors,
_E. Tetralix_, are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful
large-flowered St Dabeoc's heath, belonging to the closely allied genus
_Dabeocia_, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy
heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West France, Spain
and the Azores.
A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing
coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with
descriptions in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805).
HEATHCOAT, JOHN (1783-1861), English inventor, was born at Duffield near
Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his apprenticeship to a
framesmith near Loughborough, he made an improvement in the construction
of the warp-loom, so as to produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by
means of it. He began business on his own account at Nottingham, but
finding himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he
removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine capable of
producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace. This was by far the
most expensive and complex textile apparatus till then existing; and in
describing the process of his invention Heathcoat said in 1836, "The
single difficulty of getting the diagonal threads to twist in the
allotted space was so great that, if now to be done, I should probably
not attempt its accomplishment." Some time before perfecting his
invention, which he patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where
he entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham
manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the Luddites and
their 55 lace frames destroyed. The damages were assessed in the King's
Bench at L10,000; but as Heathcoat declined to expend the money in the
county of Leicester he never received any part of it. Undaunted by his
loss, he began at once to construct new and greatly improved machines in
an unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by water-power
and afterwards by steam. His claim to the invention of the twisting and
traversing lace machine was disputed, and a patent was taken out by a
clever workman for a similar machine, which was decided at a trial in
1816 to be an infringement of Heathcoat's patent. He followed his great
invention by others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for
ornamenting net while in course of manufacture and for making ribbons
and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved yarn
spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from cocoons. He also
patented an improved process for extracting and purifying salt. An offer
of L10,000 was made to him in 1833 for the use of his processes in
dressing and finishing silk nets, but he allowed the highly profitable
secret to remain undivulged. In 1832 he patented a steam plough.
Heathcoat was elected member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though
he seldom spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees,
where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment were highly
valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after two years of
declining health he died on the 18th of January 1861 at Bolham House,
near Tiverton.
HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT (c. 1651-1733), lord mayor of London, belonged to
an old Derbyshire family and was educated at Christ's College,
Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant in London. His trading
ventures were very successful; he was one of the promoters of the new
East India company and he emerged victorious from a contest between
himself and the old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the
founders and first directors of the bank of England. In 1702 he became
an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served as lord
mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horseback in his
procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parliament as member for the
city of London, but he was soon expelled for his share in the
circulation of some exchequer bills; however, he was again elected for
the city later in the same year, and he retained his seat until 1710. In
1714 he was member for Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727
for St Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet eight
days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heathcote's meanness is
referred to by Pope; and it was this trait that accounts largely for his
unpopularity with the lower classes. He died in London on the 25th of
January 1733 and was buried at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he
had purchased from the Mackworths.
A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867), was created
Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry, who in 1888 inherited
from his mother the barony of Willoughby de Eresby, became 1st earl of
Ancaster in 1892.
HEATHEN, a term originally applied to all persons or races who did not
hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including Mahommedans. It is
now more usually given to polytheistic races, thus excluding
Mahommedans. The derivation of the word has been much debated. It is
common to all Germanic languages; cf. German _Heide_, Dutch _heiden_. It
is usually ascribed to a Gothic _haithi_, heath. In Ulfilas' Gothic
version of the Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the
Germanic languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called
_haithno_, where the Vulgate has _gentilis_. "Heathen," i.e. the people
of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation of the Latin
_paganus_, pagan, i.e. the people of the _pagus_ or village, applied to
the dwellers in the country where the worship of the old gods still
lingered, when the people of the towns were Christians (but see PAGAN
for a more tenable explanation of that term). On the other hand it has
been suggested (Prof. S. Bugge, _Indo-German. Forschungen_, v. 178,
quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) that Ulfilas may have adopted
the word from the Armenian _hetanos_, i.e. Greek [Greek: ethne], tribes,
races, the word used for the "Gentiles" in the New Testament. _Gentilis_
in Latin, properly meaning "tribesman," came to be used of foreigners
and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in ecclesiastical usage for the
non-Christian nations and in the Old Testament for non-Jewish races.
HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT, BARON (1717-1790), British general,
a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart., of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was
born on the 25th of December 1717, and educated abroad for the military
profession. As a volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and
1736, and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the war of
the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen, rising to be
lieutenant-colonel in 1754. In 1759 he became colonel of a new regiment
of light horse (afterwards the 15th Hussars) and became well known for
the efficiency which it displayed in the subsequent campaigns. He became
lieutenant-general in 1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of
Gibraltar (q.v.), and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in
the great siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir
Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was created Baron
Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of July 1790. He had
married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake family, to which Sir Francis
Drake belonged. His son, the 2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage
became extinct, but the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake
(baronetcy of 1821) through his sister.
HEATING. In temperate latitudes the climate is generally such as to
necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the year a
temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object of the art of
heating is to secure this required warmth with the greatest economy and
efficiency. For reasons of health it may be assumed that no system of
heating is advisable which does not provide for a constant renewal of
the air in the locality warmed, and on this account there is a
difficulty in treating as separate matters the subjects of heating and
ventilation, which in practical schemes should be considered conjointly.
(See VENTILATION).
The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat from the
fire to the various parts of the building it is intended to warm, and
this transfer may be effected by radiation, by conduction or by
convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it warms the air in a room
by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling and articles in the room, and
these in turn warm the air. Therefore in a room with an open fire the
air is, as a rule, less heated than the walls. In many forms of
fireplaces fresh air is brought in and passed around the back and sides
of the stove before being admitted into the room. A closed stove acts
mainly by convection; though when heated to a high temperature it gives
out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room, and in
calculations extra allowance should be made for window areas.
There are a number of methods available for adoption in the heating of
buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty to suit the
method of warming to the class of building to be warmed. Heating may be
effected by one of the following systems, or installations may be so
arranged as to combine the advantages of more than one method: open
fires, closed stoves, hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes
at low or at high pressure, or steam at high or low pressure.
Open fires.
The open grate still holds favour in England, though in America and on
the continent of Europe it has been superseded by the closed stove. The
old form of open fire is certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of
heat up the chimney and by conduction into the brickwork backing of the
stove is considerable. Great improvements, however, have been effected
in the design of open fireplaces, and many ingenious contrivances of
this nature are now in the market which combine efficiency of heating
with economy of fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided,
this form of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong
current of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices
in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is the
ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the back and
sides of the stove before being admitted through convenient openings
into the room. This has immense advantages over the ordinary type of
fireplace. The illustrations show two forms of ventilating fireplace,
one (fig. 1) similar in appearance to the ordinary domestic grate, the
other (fig. 2) with descending smoke flue suitable for hospitals and
public rooms, where it might be fixed in the middle of the apartment.
The fixing of stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts
from the open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
Closed stoves.
With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently less fuel
is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause an unpleasant
sensation of dryness in the air, and the products of combustion also
escape to some extent, rendering this method of heating not only
unpleasant but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain is
almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in America
and on the continent of Europe it is much used for domestic heating. If
the flue pipe be carried up a considerable distance inside the apartment
to be warmed before being turned into the external air, practically the
whole of the heat generated will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or
anthracite coal are the fuels generally used in slow combustion heating
stoves.
Gas fires.
Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many points in
their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they need but
little attention, and the heat is easily controlled. On the other hand,
they may give off unhealthy fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They
usually take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of
Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The best form of
stove is that with which perfect combustion is most nearly attained, and
to which a pan of water is affixed to supply a desirable humidity to the
air, the gas having the effect of drying the atmosphere. With another
form of gas stove coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the
fire is started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may
be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual way.
Electrical heating.
Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the experimental
stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great future for electric
heating, and the perfecting of the stove, together with the cheapening
of the electric current, may be expected to result in many of the other
stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the large bill for
electric energy has debarred the general use of electrical heating, in
spite of its numerous advantages.
Oil stoves.
Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum, the
oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for many purposes
for which it is suitable. In small stoves for warming and for cooking,
petroleum presents some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no
chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes, and the
stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these stoves need a
considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming and cleaning, and
there is some risk of explosion and damage by accidental leaking and
smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum needs a special air-spray pressure
burner for its use, and this suffers from the disadvantage of being
noisy. Gas and oil radiators would be more properly termed "convectors,"
since they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar in
appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed, some are
designed to be filled with water and used as such. They should always be
fitted with a pan of water to supply the necessary humidity to the
warmed air, and a flue to carry off any disagreeable fumes.
Warm air.
Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use, has been much
improved by attention to the construction of the apparatus, and if
properly installed will give as good effects as it is possible to
obtain. The system is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls
and large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber in the
basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through it, and led by
means of flues to the various apartments for distribution by means of
easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent the atmosphere from becoming
unduly dry a pan of water is fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten
the air before it passes into the distributing flues. If each
distributing flue is connected by means of a mixing valve with a
cold-air flue, the warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a
nicety (see VENTILATION).
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
Low pressure hot water.
There are many different systems of heating by hot water circulating in
pipes. The oldest and best known is the "two pipe" system, others being
the "one pipe" or "simple circuit," and the "drop" or "overhead." The
high pressure system is of later invention, having been first put to
practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845. All these methods warm chiefly
by means of convected heat, the amount of true radiation from the pipes
being small. The manner in which the circulation of hot water takes
place in the tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from
the top of which a "flow" pipe communicates with the rooms to be warmed
(fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter, rises to the top of
the boiler, and passes along the flow pipe. It is followed by more and
more hot water, and so travels along the flow pipe, which is rising all
the time, to the farthest point of the circuit, by which time it has in
all probability cooled considerably. From this point the "return" pipe
drops, usually at the same rate as the flow pipe rises; and in due
course the water reaches its starting point, the boiler, and is again
heated and again circulated through the system. The connexion of the
return pipe is made with the lower part of the boiler. Branches may be
made from the main pipes by means of smaller pipes arranged in the same
manner as the mains, the branch flow pipe being connected with the main
flow pipe and returning into the main return. To obtain a larger heating
surface than a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes
where desired, and the water passing through them warms the surrounding
air.
The "one pipe" system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the same principle, but
in place of two pipes being placed in adjacent positions one large main
makes a complete circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and
returning to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches are
taken and connected with radiators and other heating appliances.
In the "drop" or "overhead" system (fig. 5) a rising main is taken
directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the building, and from
this branches are dropped to the lower floors, and connected by means of
smaller branches to radiators or coils. The vertical branches descend to
the basement and generally merge in a single return pipe which is
connected to the lower part of the boiler.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water system
may be considerably accelerated by means of steam injections. The water
after being heated passes into a circulating tank into which steam is
introduced; this, mixing with the hot water, gives it additional motive
power, resulting in a faster circulation. This steam condensing adds to
the water in the pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led
back to the boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard,
this arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as the
same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit of fur
occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the consequent increased
rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and radiators may be reduced in
size, in many circumstances a very desirable thing to achieve. With this
system the temperature can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If
the weather is mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the
apparatus as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam
injectors.
The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often combined in
one tank placed at a point above the level of circulation. The tank
should be of a size to hold not less than a twentieth part of the total
amount of water held in the system. The automatic inlet of cold water to
the hot water system from the main house tank or other source is
controlled by a ball valve, which is so fixed as to allow the water to
rise no more than an inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the
remainder of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided,
discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should the
ball valve become defective.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
High pressure hot water.
The "Perkins" or "small bore high pressure" system (fig. 6) has many
advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small and is easily managed,
the temperature is well under control and may be regulated to suit the
changing weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance in a
room. The whole system is constructed of wrought iron pipe of small
diameter, strong enough to resist a testing pressure of 2000 to 2500 lb.
per sq. in. The boiler consists of similar pipe coiled up to form a
fire-box, inside which the furnace is lighted. The coil is encased with
firebricks and brickwork, and the smoke from the fire is carried off by
a flue in the ordinary way. The flow pipe of similar section (usually
having an internal diameter of about 1 in., the metal being nearly 1/4
in. thick) continues from the top of the coil, and after travelling
round the various apartments returns to, and is connected with, the
lowest part of the boiler coil. The joints take a special form to enable
them to withstand the great strain to which they are subjected (fig. 7).
One end of a pipe is finished flat, the end of the other pipe being
brought to a conical edge. On one end also a right-handed, and on the
other a left-handed, screw-thread is turned. A coupling collar, tapped
in the same manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to
impress itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting
joint. The system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of
water, an expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger dimensions
being provided at the top of the system above the highest point of
circulation. Upon the application of heat to the fire-box coil the water
naturally expands and forces its way up into the expansion chamber; but
there it encounters the pressure of the confined air, and ebullition is
consequently prevented. Thus at no time can steam form in the system.
This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness of the
pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident may be
prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small fire in the
furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid of low
freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the water.
Steam heating.
For large public buildings, factories, &c., heating by steam is
generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat is
available, and the great distance from the boiler at which warming is
effected. In the case of factories the exhaust steam from the engines
used for driving the working machinery is made use of and forms the most
economical method of heating possible. There are several different
systems of heating by steam--low pressure, high pressure and minus
pressure.
In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried to a
sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its gradual fall
to a little beyond the most distant point at which connexion is to be
made with the return pipe, which thence slopes towards the boiler.
Branches are taken off the flow pipe, and after circulating through
coils or radiators are connected with the return pipe. In a
well-proportioned system the pressure need not exceed 2 or 3 lb. per sq.
in. for excellent results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar
in principle, the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler
and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the while. It
resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure hot-water system.
Radiators are fed directly from the main. Where, as in factories or
workshops, there are already installed engines working at a high steam
pressure, say 120 to 180 lb. per sq. in., a portion of the steam
generated in the boilers may be utilized for heating by the aid of a
reducing valve. The steam is passed through the valve and emerges at the
pressure required generally from 3 lb. upwards. It is then used for one
of the systems described above.
High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by low pressure,
is little used. The principles are the same as those applied to
low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances must, of course, be
made to stand the higher strain to which they are subjected.
The "minus pressure" steam system, sometimes termed "atmospheric" or
"vacuum," is of more recent introduction than those just described. It
is certainly the most scientific method of steam-heating, and heat can
be made to travel a greater distance by its aid than by any other means.
The heat of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system
is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the
appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into the pipes
at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked through the
system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the same operation frees the
pipes from air and from condensation water. This pumping action results
in an extremely rapid circulation of the heating agent, enabling long
distances to be traversed without much loss of heat.
Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires less piping,
which, further, may be of much smaller diameter to attain a similar
result, because of the higher temperature of the heat yielding surface.
A drawback to the use of steam is the fact that the high temperature of
the pipes and radiators attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There
is also a risk that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The
apparatus needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would
result in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system would
almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is necessary either to
instal a number of small radiators or to divide the radiators into
sections, each section controlled by distinct valves; steam may then be
admitted to all the sections of the radiator or to any less number of
sections as desired. In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a
lower temperature and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded
by a steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for hot-water
pipes is termed the "rust" joint, which is cheap to make, but
unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required are iron borings,
sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed together, moistened with
water, and rammed into the socket, which is previously half filled with
yarn, well caulked. The materials mixed with the iron borings cause them
to rust into a solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes
place. On this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming
the joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes are
undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of materials to
form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron borings well mixed with
2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of powdered sal-ammoniac.
Another joint, less rigid but sound and durable, is made with yarn and
white and red lead. The white and red lead are mixed together to form a
putty, and are filled into the socket alternately with layers of
well-caulked yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead
mixture.
Joints for pipes.
Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling water (212 deg.
F.) about 1 part in 900, that is to say, a pipe 100 ft. long would
expand or increase in length when heated to this temperature about
1(1/2) in., an amount which seems small but which would be quite
sufficient to destroy one or more of the joints if provision were not
made to prevent damage. The amount of expansion increases as the
temperature is raised; at 340 deg. F. it is 2(1/2) in. in 100 ft. With
wrought iron pipes bends may be arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take up
this expansion. With cast iron pipe this cannot be done, and no length
of piping over 40 ft. should be without a proper expansion joint. The
pipes are best supported on rollers which allow of movement without
straining the joints.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
There are several joints in general use for the best class of work which
are formed with the aid of india-rubber rings or collars, any expansion
being divided amongst the whole number of joints. In the rubber ring
joint an india-rubber ring is used; slightly less in diameter than the
pipe. The rubber is circular in section, and about 1/2 in. thick, and is
stretched on the extreme end of a pipe which is then forced into the
next socket. This joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows
for expansion and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is
avoided. It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson's
patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The pipes
have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar is placed, the
joint being held together by clips. The result is very satisfactory and
will stand heavy water pressure. Messenger's joint (fig. 10) is designed
to allow more freedom of expansion and at the same time to withstand
considerable pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another
is formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of each
pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length; pipes with
shaped ends obviously must be obtained in the exact lengths required.
Jones's expansion joint (fig. 11) is somewhat similar to Messenger's but
it is not capable of withstanding so great a pressure. In this case both
collars of cast iron are loose.
Radiators.
Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design coils of
pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single pipe would
afford. They are now usually of special design, and may be divided into
three classes--indirect radiators, direct radiators and direct
ventilating radiators. Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor
of the apartment to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This
method is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and
ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their surfaces
previously to being admitted through the gratings into the room. Direct
radiators are a development of the early coil of pipe; they are made in
various types and designs and are usually of cast iron. Ventilating
radiators are similar, but have an inlet arrangement at the base to
allow external air to pass over the heating surface before passing out
through the perforations. Radiators should not be fixed directly on to
the main heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter
leading from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the
main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily controlled
by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe. To each radiator
should be fitted an air tap, which when opened will permit the escape of
any air that has accumulated in the coil; otherwise free circulation is
impossible, and the full benefit of the heat is not obtained.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
Hot-water supply.
A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house for
domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements may be
satisfied with a boiler heated by the kitchen fire. For large buildings
where large quantities of hot water are used an independent boiler of
suitable size should be installed. Every installation is made up of a
boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain the water
when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply from which to the
system is regulated automatically by a ball valve. These containers,
proportioned to the required supply of hot water, are connected with
each other by means of pipes, a "flow" and a "return" connecting the
boiler with the cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from
the top of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the
return pipe joining the lower portions of the cylinder and boiler. The
supply from the cold water cistern enters the bottom of the cylinder,
and thence travels by way of the return pipe to the boiler, where it is
heated, and back through the flow pipe to the cylinder, which is thus
soon filled with hot water. A flow pipe which serves also for expansion
is taken from the top of the cylinder to a point above the cold-water
supply and turned down to prevent the ingress of dirt. From this pipe at
various points are taken the supply pipes to baths, lavatories, sinks
and other appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder
is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and most
effective method, but it may be placed some distance away if desired.
The tank system is of much earlier date than this cylinder system, and
although the two resemble each other in many respects, the tank system
is in practice the less effective. The tank is placed above the level of
the topmost draw off, and often in a cupboard which it will warm
sufficiently to permit of its being used as a linen airing closet. An
expansion pipe is taken from the top of the tank to a point above the
roof. All draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which
connects the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted
in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top of the
cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the tank or cylinder
and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water may also be heated by
placing a coil of steam or high-pressure hot-water pipes in a water tank
(fig. 6), the water heated in this way circulating in the manner already
described. An alternative plan is to pass the water through pipes placed
in a steam chest.
Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased in a
non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt or asbestos
composition. The two first mentioned are affixed by means of bands or
straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid on in the form of a plaster
from 2 to 6 in. thick.
Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main services by
a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly flowing past the
tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained immediately. Frequently a
single pipe is led to the tap, but the water in this branch cools and
must therefore be drawn off before hot water can be obtained.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
Boilers.
Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating
installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range, and
those heated separately or independently. Of the first class there are
two varieties in common use--a form of "saddle" boiler (fig. 13) and the
"boot" boiler (fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every
conceivable size and form of construction, and many of them are capable
of doing excellent work. In the choice of a boiler of this description
it should be remembered that rapid heating, economical combustion of
fuel, and facilities for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of any of
which considerably lowers the efficiency of the apparatus. Boilers set
in brickwork are sometimes used in domestic work, although they are more
favoured for horticultural heating. The shape mostly used is the
"saddle" boiler, or some variation upon this very old pattern. The
coiled pipe fire-box of the high-pressure hot-water system previously
described may be also classed with boilers.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of building
the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical sections.
Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and those working
independently are formed on the sectional principle, which has many good
points. The parts are easy of transport and can be handled without
difficulty through narrow doorways and in confined situations. The size
of the boiler may be increased or diminished by the addition or
subtraction of one or more sections; these, being simple in design, are
easily fitted together, and should a section become defective it is a
simple matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur
with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose of
repair to disconnect and remove the whole apparatus, the heating system
of which it forms a part being in the meantime useless. In a type built
with vertical sections each division is complete in itself, and is not
directly connected with the next section, but communicates with flow and
return drums. A defective section may thus be left in position and
stopped off by means of plugs from the drums until it is convenient to
fit a new one in its place. A boiler with horizontal sections is shown
in fig. 15; it will be seen that each of the upper sections has a number
of cross waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box and
intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great economy of fuel.
Safety valves.
In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion pipe
already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure occurring in the
boiler; should, however, the pipes become blocked in any way while the
apparatus is in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting of
the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet it would
in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a safety valve
should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected thereto with
a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve may be of the dead weight
(fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) or diaphragm variety. The
three first named are largely used. In the diaphragm valve a thin piece
of metal is fixed to an outlet from the boiler, and when a moderate
pressure is exceeded this gives way, allowing the water and steam to
escape.
Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer metal
inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the heat of the
water rise above a certain temperature.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
Geysers.
A "Geyser" is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating a quantity
of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper or wrought iron is
passed through a cylinder in which gas or oil heating burners are
placed. The piping takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the
outlet is reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature.
By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, greater or
smaller in proportion to the size and power of the apparatus. The
improved types of gas geysers are provided with a single control to both
gas and water supplies, with a small "pilot" burner to ignite the gas. A
flue should in all cases be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
Incrustation.
In districts where the water is of a "hard nature," that is, contains
bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the boiler, cylinders,
tanks and pipes of a hot water system will become incrusted with a
deposit of lime which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated
to boiling point. With "very hard" water this deposit may require
removal every three months; in London it is usual to clean out the
boiler every six months and the cylinders and tanks at longer intervals.
For this purpose manlids must be provided (figs. 13 and 14), and pipes
should be fitted with removable caps at the bends to allow for
periodical cleaning. The lime deposit or "fur" is a poor conductor of
heat, and it is therefore most detrimental to the efficiency of the
system to allow the interior of the boiler or any other portion to
become furred up. Further, if not removed, the fur will in a short time
bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails a
disadvantage of another character--that of corroding iron and lead work,
soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action upon these metals.
In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as
large an extent as possible.
The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the
radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent
required when the external air is at freezing point (32 deg. Fahr.):--
+-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
| | | Cubic Feet of Air heated by |
| | | 1 sq. ft. of Radiator or |
| Description of Building | Temperature | Pipe Surface. |
| to be heated. | required. +-----------------------------+
| | | Low Pressure | Low Pressure |
| | | Water. | Steam. |
+-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
| Dwelling rooms | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 85-90 | 115-125 |
| Schools | 60 deg. | 90-100 | 120-130 |
| Churches and chapels | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 100-120 | 135-160 |
| Offices and shops | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 120-125 | 160-170 |
| Public halls, workshops,| | | |
| waiting-rooms | 55 deg. | 130-150 | 175-200 |
| Warehouses, stores | 50 deg.-55 deg. | 140-160 | 190-220 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
Steam supply at Lockport.
In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of
application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great
capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in
New York state, America, an interesting example of the direct
application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under
the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius
of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a
pressure of 35 lb. to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in.
in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and
other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid
under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are
1(1/2) in. in diameter, and 3/4-in. pipes are used inside the houses.
The steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators,
for heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The
steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal
pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for
an installation from L30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to L100 or
more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view
it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not
been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.
The principal publications on heating are: Hood, _Practical Treatise
on Warming Buildings by Hot Water_; Baldwin, _Hot Water Heating and
Fittings_; Baldwin, _Steam Heating for Buildings_; Billings,
_Ventilation and Heating_; Carpenter, _Heating and Ventilating
Buildings_; Jones, _Heating by Hot Water_, _Ventilation and Hot Water
Supply_; Dye, _Hot Water Supply_. (J. Bt.)
HEAVEN (O. Eng. _hefen_, _heofon_, _heofone_; this word appears in O.S.
_hevan_; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. _Himmel_, Dutch _hemel_;
there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the
ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the suggestion that it is
connected with "to heave," in the sense of something "lifted up," is
erroneous), properly the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault
above the earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be
placed, the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the
space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region of winds,
rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven and the earth
together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, and still in poetical
language, make up the universe. In the cosmogonies of many ancient
peoples there was a plurality of heavens, probably among the earlier
Hebrews, the idea being elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the
Babylonians and in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the
higher transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven.
Heaven, as in the Hebrew _shamayim_, the Greek [Greek: ouranos], the
Latin _caelum_, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian
eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see
ESCHATOLOGY and PARADISE).
HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813-1863), German poet and dramatist, was
born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813.
Though only the son of a poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for
poetry, which was first displayed to the world by the publication, in
the Hamburg _Modezeitung_, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe
(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery tales.
Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several of her friends
on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg and there prepare himself
for the university. A year later he went to Heidelberg to study law, but
finding this uncongenial he passed on to the university of Munich, where
he devoted himself to philosophy, history and literature. In 1839 Hebbel
left Munich and wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where he resumed his
relations with Elsie Lensing, whose self-sacrificing assistance had
helped him over the darkest days in Munich. In the same year he wrote
his first tragedy _Judith_ (published 1841), which in the following year
was performed in Hamburg and Berlin and made his name known throughout
Germany. In 1840 he wrote the tragedy _Genoveva_, and the following year
finished a comedy, _Der Diamant_, which he had begun at Munich. In 1842
he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the king of Denmark a
small travelling studentship, which enabled him to spend some time in
Paris and two years (1844-1846) in Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine
"tragedy of common life," _Maria Magdalene_ (1844). On his return from
Italy Hebbel met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di
Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to remain,
and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best intellectual
society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted life of ease had its
effect. The old precarious existence became a horror to him, he made a
deliberate breach with it by marrying (in 1846) the beautiful and
wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who
had given up all for him and who remained faithful till her death, on
the ground that "a man's first duty is to the most powerful force within
him, that which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the
world": in his case the poetical faculty, which would have perished "in
the miserable struggle for existence." This "deadly sin," which, "if
peace of conscience be the test of action," was, he considered, the best
act of his life, established his fortunes. Elise, however, still
provided useful inspiration for his art. As late as 1855, shortly after
her death, he wrote the little epic _Mutter und Kind_, intended to show
that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which
makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all
conditions equal. Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German
sovereigns bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he was
feted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From the grand-duke
of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation to take up his
residence at Weimar, where several of his plays were first performed. He
remained, however, at Vienna until his death on the 13th of December
1863.
Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel's principal tragedies are
_Herodes und Mariamne_ (1850); _Julia_ (1851); _Michel Angelo_ (1851);
_Agnes Bernauer_ (1855); _Gyges und sein Ring_ (1856), and the
magnificently conceived trilogy _Die Nibelungen_ (1862), his last work
(consisting of a prologue, _Der gehornte Siegfried_, and the tragedies,
_Siegfrieds Tod_ and _Kriemhilds Rache_), which won for the author the
Schiller prize. Of his comedies _Der Diamant_ (1847), _Der Rubin_
(1850), and the tragi-comedy _Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien_ (1845), are
the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity.
All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in
characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic
situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances
which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the
unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of
his lyric poems, and especially in _Mutter und Kind_, published in 1859,
Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.
His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols., Hamburg,
1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best
critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to
which have been added Hebbel's Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6
vols.). Hebbel's _Briefwechsel mit Freunden und beruhmten
Zeitgenossen_ was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief
biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner
(1905). See also L. A. Frankl, _Zur Biographie F. Hebbels_ (1884); T.
Poppe, _F. Hebbel und sein Drama_ (1900); A. Scheunert, _Der
Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Asthetik Hebbels_
(1903); E. A. Georgy, _Die Tragodie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt_
(1904).
HEBBURN, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of
Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 4(1/2) m. below
Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881),
11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive shipbuilding and engineering
works, rope and sail factories, chemical, colour and cement works, and
collieries.
HEBDEN BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary division
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Calder and Hebden
rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax by the Lancashire and Yorkshire
railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. The town has cotton factories, dye-works,
foundries and manufactories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley,
between Halifax and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of
which consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated,
but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate
surroundings is remarkable.
HEBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the goddess of
youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female counterpart of Ganymede,
and acts as cupbearer to the gods (_Iliad_, iv. 2). She was the special
attendant of her mother, whose horses she harnessed (_Iliad_, v. 722).
When Heracles was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him
in marriage (_Odyssey_, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic age,
which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe was replaced
by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To account for her retirement from
her office, it was said that she fell down in the presence of the gods
while handing the wine, and was so ashamed that she refused to appear
before them again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance
with the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus and
Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera are often
identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of Aphrodite; at
Phlius, a festival called [Greek: Kissotomoi] (the days of ivy-cutting)
was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, ii. 13); and ivy was
sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis of Heracles and his marriage
with Hebe became a favourite subject with poets and painters, and many
instances occur on vases. In later art she is often represented, like
Ganymede, caressing the eagle.
See R. Kekule, _Hebe_ (1867), mainly dealing with the representations
of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's
_Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the goddess into a mere
personification of the eternal youth that belongs to the gods, and this
conception is frequently met with. Then she becomes identical with the
Roman Juventas, who is simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter
Juventus, the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as
personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel was
dedicated in very early times in the _cella_ of Minerva in the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected the legend of
Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods refused to give way
when it was being built--an indication of the eternal solidity and youth
of Rome. The cult of Juventas did not, however, become firmly
established until the time of the second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline
books ordered a lectisternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in
honour of Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in
the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the personification,
not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, who assumed the attributes
of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G.
Wissowa in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_).
HEBEL, JOHANN PETER (1760-1826), German poet and popular writer, was
born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. The father dying when the child
was little over a year old, he was brought up amidst poverty-stricken
conditions in the village of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received
his earliest education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who
enabled him to complete his school education and to study theology
(1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university course he was for
a time a private tutor, then became teacher at the Gymnasium in
Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director of the school. He was
subsequently appointed member of the Consistory and "evangelical
prelate." He died at Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of
September 1826. Hebel is one of the most widely read of all German
popular poets and writers. His poetical narratives and lyric poems,
written in the "Alemanic" dialect, are "popular" in the best sense. His
_Allemannische Gedichte_ (1803) "bucolicize," in the words of Goethe,
"the whole world in the most attractive manner" (_verbauert das ganze
Universum auf die anmutigste Weise_). Indeed, few modern German poets
surpass him in fidelity, _naivete_, humour, and in the freshness and
vigour of his descriptions. His poem, _Die Wiese_, has been described by
Johannes Scherr as the "pearl of German idyllic poetry"; while his prose
writings, especially the narratives and essays contained in the
_Schatzkastlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes_ (Tubingen, 1811; new
edition, Stuttg. 1869, 1888), belong to the best class of German
stories, and according to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868)
in his _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ are "worth more than a
cartload of novels" (_wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf_). Memorials
have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.
A complete edition of Hebel's works--_Samtliche Werke_--was first
published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions
appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt,
2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited
by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel's
correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Langin,
_J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild_ (1894), and the introduction to
Behaghel's edition.
HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, was born at
Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April 1783. His father, who belonged
to an old Yorkshire family, held a moiety of the living of Malpas.
Reginald Heber early showed remarkable promise, and was entered in
November 1800 at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a
distinguished student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled
_Carmen seculare_, an English poem on _Palestine_, and a prose essay on
_The Sense of Honour_. In November 1804 he was elected a fellow of All
Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished university career,
he made a long tour in Europe. He was admitted to holy orders in 1807,
and was then presented to the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In
1809 Heber married Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He
was made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton lecturer for
1815, preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and bishop of Calcutta in
January 1823. Before sailing for India he received the degree of D.D.
from the university of Oxford. In India Bishop Heber laboured
indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the
spread of Christianity throughout the East. He undertook numerous tours
in India, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other
Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told
severely on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic
fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A statue of
him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.
Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste and great
practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his hymns, which rank among
the best in the English language. The following may be instanced: "Lord
of mercy and of might"; "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning";
"By cool Siloam's shady rill"; "God, that madest earth and heaven"; "The
Lord of might from Sinai's brow"; "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty";
"From Greenland's icy mountains"; "The Lord will come, the earth shall
quake"; "The Son of God goes forth to war." Heber's hymns and other
poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring
aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical than
poetical in the strict sense.
Among Heber's works are: _Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the
Passage of the Red Sea_ (1809); _Europe: Lines on the Present War_
(1809); a volume of poems in 1812; _The Personality and Office of the
Christian Comforter asserted and explained_ (being the Bampton
Lectures for 1815); _The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a
Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings_
(1822); _Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the
Year, principally by Bishop Heber_ (1827); _A Journey through India_
(1828); _Sermons preached in England_, and _Sermons preached in India_
(1829); _Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every
Sunday in the Year_ (1837). _The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber_
were collected in 1841.
See the _Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..._, by his widow, Amelia Heber
(1830), which also contains a number of Heber's miscellaneous
writings; _The Last Days of Bishop Heber_, by Thomas Robinson, A.M.,
archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious
Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, by
Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).
HEBER, RICHARD (1773-1833), English book-collector, the half-brother of
Reginald Heber, was born in London on the 5th of January 1773. As an
undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely
classical library, but his taste broadening, he became interested in
early English drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection
of rare books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales,
purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir
Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and who dedicated to him the
sixth canto of _Marmion_, classed Heber's library as "superior to all
others in the world"; Campbell described him as "the fiercest and
strongest of all the bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the
purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. "No
gentleman," he remarked, "can be without three copies of a book, one for
show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did his
library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, some on the
Continent. It is estimated to have cost over L100,000, and after his
death the sale of that part of his collection stored in England realized
more than L56,000. He is known to have owned 150,000 volumes, and
probably many more. He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire
and Yorkshire, and was sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member
of Parliament for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made
a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum
Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of October 1833.
HEBERDEN, WILLIAM (1710-1801), English physician, was born in London in
1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge,
where he obtained a fellowship about 1730, became master of arts in
1732, and took the degree of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge
nearly ten years longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course
of lectures on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled in
London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1749, and
enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. At the
age of seventy-two he partially retired, spending his summers at a house
which he had taken at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London
during the winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary
member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in London on the
17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good classical scholar, published
several papers in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, and among his
noteworthy contributions to the _Medical Transactions_ (issued, largely
at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians) were papers on
chicken-pox (1767) and angina pectoris (1768). His _Commentarii de
morborum historia et curatione_, the result of careful notes made in his
pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in 1802; in
the following year an English translation appeared, believed to be from
the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), also a distinguished
scholar and physician, who attended King George III. in his last
illness.
HEBERT, EDMOND (1812-1890), French geologist, was born at Villefargau,
Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was educated at the College de
Meaux, Auxerre, and at the Ecole Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became
professor at Meaux, in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the
Ecole Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and
lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. es Sc. was conferred upon
him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the Sorbonne. There he
was eminently successful as a teacher, and worked with great zeal in the
field, adding much to the knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He
devoted, however, special attention to the subdivisions of the
Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation
with the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe the
first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological zones (see
Table in _Geol. Mag._, 1869, p. 200). During his later years he was
regarded as the leading geologist in France. He was elected a member of
the Institute in 1877, Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he
was three times president of the Geological Society of France. He died
in Paris on the 4th of April 1890.
HEBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794), French Revolutionist, called "Pere
Duchesne," from the newspaper he edited, was born at Alencon, on the
15th of November 1757, where his father, who kept a goldsmith's shop,
had held some municipal office. His family was ruined, however, by a
lawsuit while he was still young, and Hebert came to Paris, where in his
struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the accusations of
theft directed against him later by Camille Desmoulins were, however,
without foundation. In 1790 he attracted attention by some pamphlets,
and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On
the 10th of August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune of
Paris, and became second substitute of the _procureur_ of the Commune on
the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks on the Girondists led to
his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but he was released owing to the
threatening attitude of the mob. Henceforth very popular, Hebert
organized with P. G. Chaumette (q.v.) the "worship of Reason," in
opposition to the theistic cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom
he tried to excite a popular movement. The failure of this brought about
the arrest of the Hebertists, or _enrages_, as his partisans were
called. Hebert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, who
had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hebert's influence was
mainly due to his articles in his journal _Le Pere Duchesne_,[1] which
appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, while not lacking in a
certain cleverness, were violent and abusive, and purposely couched in
foul language in order to appeal to the mob.
See Louis Duval, "Hebert chez lui," in _La Revolution Francaise, revue
d'histoire moderne et contemporaine_, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,
_J. R. Hebert, l'auteur du Pere Duchesne avant la journee du 10 aout
1792_ (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, _Le Culte de
la raison et de l'etre supreme_ (Paris, 1892).