§ 1. _THE NATIONAL LOVE OF POETRY._
The passionate love with which the Nahuas cultivated song, music and
the dance is a subject of frequent comment by the historians of
Mexico. These arts are invariably mentioned as prominent features of
the aboriginal civilization; no public ceremony was complete without
them; they were indispensable in the religious services held in the
temples; through their assistance the sacred and historical
traditions were preserved; and the entertainments of individuals
received their chief lustre and charm from their association with
these arts.
The profession of the poet stood in highest honor. It was the custom
before the Conquest for every town, every ruler and every person of
importance to maintain a company of singers and dancers, paying them
fixed salaries, and the early writer, Duran, tells us that this
custom continued in his own time, long after the Conquest. He
sensibly adds, that he can see nothing improper in it, although it
was condemned by some of the Spaniards.[1] In the training of these
artists their patrons took a deep personal interest, and were not at
all tolerant of neglected duties. We are told that the chief selected
the song which was to be sung, and the tune by which it was to be
accompanied; and did any one of the choir sing falsely, a drummer
beat out of time, or a dancer strike an incorrect attitude, the
unfortunate artist was instantly called forth, placed in bonds and
summarily executed the next morning![2]
With critics of such severity to please, no wonder that it was
necessary to begin the training early, and to set apart for it
definite places and regular teachers. Therefore it was one of the
established duties of the teachers in the calmecac or public school,
"to teach the pupils all the verses of the sacred songs which were
written in characters in their books."[3] There were also special
schools, called _cuicoyan_, singing places, where both sexes were
taught to sing the popular songs and to dance to the sound of the
drums.[4] In the public ceremonies it was no uncommon occurrence for
the audience to join in the song and dance until sometimes many
thousands would thus be seized with the contagion of the rhythmical
motion, and pass hours intoxicated (to use a favorite expression of
the Nahuatl poets) with the cadence and the movement.
After the Conquest the Church set its face firmly against the
continuance of these amusements. Few of the priests had the liberal
views of Father Duran, already quoted; most of them were of the
opinion of Torquemada, who urges the clergy "to forbid the singing of
the ancient songs, because all of them are full of idolatrous
memories, or of diabolical and suspicious allusions of the same
character."[5]
To take the place of the older melodies, the natives were taught the
use of the musical instruments introduced by the Spaniards, and very
soon acquired no little proficiency, so that they could perform upon
them, compose original pieces, and manufacture most of the
instruments themselves.[6]
To this day the old love of the song and dance continues in the
Indian villages; and though the themes are changed, the forms remain
with little alteration. Travelers describe the movements as slow, and
consisting more in bending and swaying the body than in motions of
the feet; while the songs chanted either refer to some saint or
biblical character, or are erotic and pave the way to orgies.[7]
§ 2. _THE POET AND HIS WORK._
The Nahuatl word for a song or poem is _cuicatl_. It is derived from
the verb _cuica_, to sing, a term probably imitative or
onomatopoietic in origin, as it is also a general expression for the
twittering of birds. The singer was called _cuicani_, and is
distinguished from the composer of the song, the poet, to whom was
applied the term _cuicapicqui_, in which compound the last member,
_picqui_, corresponds strictly to the Greek _poiaetaes_,
being a derivative of _piqui_, to make, to create.[8] Sometimes he
was also called _cuicatlamantini_, "skilled in song."
It is evident from these words, all of which belong to the ancient
language, that the distinction between the one who composed the poems
and those who sang them was well established, and that the Nahuatl
poetry was, therefore, something much above mere improvisation, as
some have thought. This does not alter the fact that a professed bard
usually sang songs of his own composition, as well as those obtained
from other sources. This is obvious from the songs in this
collection, many of which contain the expression _ni cuicani_, I, the
singer, which also refers to the maker of the song.
In the classical work of Sahagun, the author describes the ancient
poet: "The worthy singer has a clear mind and a strong memory. He
composes songs himself and learns those of others, and is always
ready to impart either to the fellows of his craft. He sings with a
well-trained voice, and is careful to practice in private before he
appears before the public. The unworthy singer, on the other hand, is
ignorant and indolent. What he learns he will not communicate to
others. His voice is hoarse and untrained, and he is at once envious
and boastful."[9]
§ 3. _THE THEMES AND CLASSES OF THE SONGS._
From what he could learn about them some two centuries or more after
the Conquest, the antiquary Boturini classified all the ancient songs
under two general heads, the one treating mainly of historical
themes, while the other was devoted to purely fictitious, emotional
or imaginative subjects.[10] His terse classification is expanded by
the Abbé Clavigero, who states that the themes of the ancient poets
were various, some chanting the praises of the gods or petitioning
them for favors, others recalled the history of former generations,
others were didactic and inculcated correct habits of life, while
others, finally, were in lighter vein, treating of hunting, games and
love.[11]
His remarks were probably a generalization from a chapter in
Torquemada's _Monarquia Indiana_, in which that writer states that
the songs at the sacred festivals differed in subject with the
different months and seasons. Thus, in the second month of their
calendar, at its stated festival, the people sang the greatness of
their rulers; in the seventh month all the songs were of love, of
women, or of hunting; in the eighth the chants recalled the noble
deeds of their ancestors and their divine origin; while in the ninth
month nothing was heard but verses fraught with lamentation for the
dead.[12] With less minuteness, Father Duran gives almost the same
information. He himself had often heard the songs which Montezuma of
Tenochtitlan, and Nezahualpizintli of Tezcuco, had ordered to be
composed in their own honor, describing their noble lineage, their
riches, their grandeur and their victories. These songs were in his
day still sung at the public dances of the natives, and he adds,
"although they were filled with laudation of their ancient rulers, it
gave me much pleasure to hear the praises of such grandeur." There
were other poets, he observes, who lived in the temples and composed
songs exclusively in honor of the gods.[13]
These general expressions may be supplemented by a list of terms,
specifying particular classes of songs, preserved by various writers.
These are as follows:--
_melahuacuicatl_: this is translated by Tezozomoc, "a straight and
true song."[14] It is a compound of _melahuac_, straight, direct,
true; and _cuicatl_, song. It was a beginning or opening song at the
festivals, and apparently derived its name from its greater
intelligibility and directness of expression. A synonym, derived from
the same root, is _tlamelauhcayotl_, which appears in the title to
some of the songs in the present collection.
_xopancuicatl_: this term is spelled by Ixtlilxochitl,
_xompacuicatl_, and explained to mean "a song of the spring" (from
_xopan_, springtime, _cuicatl_, song). The expression seems to be
figurative, referring to the beginning or early life of things. Thus,
the prophetic songs of Nezahualcoyotl, those which he sang when he
laid the foundation of his great palace, bore this name.[15]
_teuccuicatl_: songs of the nobles (_teuctli_, _cuicatl_). These were
also called _quauhcuicatl_, "eagle songs," the term _quauhtli_,
eagle, being applied to distinguished persons.
_xochicuicatl_: flower-song, one singing the praises of flowers.
_icnocuicatl_: song of destitution or compassion.
_noteuhcuicaliztli_: "the song of my lords." This appears to be a
synonymous expression for _teuccuicatl_; it is mentioned by Boturini,
who adds that on the day sacred to the god Xiuhteuctli the king began
the song so called.[16]
_miccacuicatl_: the song for the dead (_miqui_, to die, _cuicatl_).
In this solemn chant the singers were seated on the ground, and their
hair was twisted in plaits around their heads.[17]
In addition to the above terms drawn from the subject or character of
the songs, there were others, of geographical origin, apparently
indicating that the song, or its tune, or its treatment was borrowed
from another locality or people. These are:--
_Huexotzincayotl_: a song of Huexotzinco, a Nahuatl town, situated
east of the Lake of Tezcuco. This song was sung by the king and
superior nobles at certain festivals, and, in the prescribed order of
the chants, followed a _melahuaccuicatl_.[18]
_Chalcayotl_: a song of Chalco, on the lake of the same name. This
followed the last mentioned in order of time at the festivals.
_Otoncuicatl_: a song of the Otomis. These were the immediate
neighbors of the Nahuas, but spoke a language radically diverse. The
songs so-called were sung fourth on the list.
_Cuextecayotl_: a song of the country of the Cuexteca, or Cuextlan, a
northern province of Mexico.
_Tlauancacuextecayotl_: a song of the country of the
Tlauancacuexteca.
_Anahuacayotl_: a song of Anahuac, that is, of a country near the
water, either the valley of Mexico, or the shores of the ocean.
Some very ancient sacred songs were referred to by Tezozomoc as
peculiar to the worship of Huitzilopochtli, and, indeed, introduced
by this potent divinity. From their names, _cuitlaxoteyotl_, and
_tecuilhuicuicatl_,[19] I judge that they referred to some of those
pederastic rites which still prevail extensively among the natives of
the pueblos of New Mexico, and which have been described by Dr.
William A. Hammond and other observers.[20] One of these songs began,
Cuicoyan nohuan mitotia;
In-the-place-of-song with-me they-dance.
But the old chronicler, who doubtless knew it all by heart, gives us
no more of it.[21]
§ 4. _PROSODY OF THE SONGS._
The assertion is advanced by Boturini that the genuine ancient
Nahuatl poetry which has been preserved is in iambic metre, and he
refers to a song of Nezahualcoyotl in his collection to prove his
opinion. What study I have given to the prosody of the Nahuatl tongue
leads me to doubt the correctness of so sweeping a statement. The
vocalic elements of the language have certain peculiarities which
prevent its poetry from entering unencumbered into the domain of
classical prosody.
The quantity of Nahuatl syllables is a very important element in the
pronunciation of the tongue, but their quantity is not confined, as
in Latin, to long, short, and common. The Nahuatl vowels are long,
short, intermediate, and "with stress," or as the Spanish grammarians
say, "with a jump," _con saltillo_. The last mentioned is peculiar to
this tongue. The vowel so designated is pronounced with a momentary
suspension or catching of the breath, rendering it emphatic.
These quantities are prominent features in the formal portions of the
language, characterizing inflections and declinations. No common
means of designating them have been adopted by the grammarians, and
for my present purpose, I shall make use of the following signs:--
[)a] , short.
a , intermediate.
[=a] , long.
â , with stress.