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| Transcriber's Notes |
| |
| Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. Passages in bold |
| are indicated by $bold$. Passages in small caps are shown in |
| title case without explicit indication. Subscripted characters |
| are indicated by _{subscript}. Superscripted characters are |
| indicated by ^x (x is a single character). [OE] is the latin OE |
| ligature. |
| |
| A list of inconsistencies and corrections is at the end of the |
| text. |
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THE MANUFACTURE
OF PAPER
BY
R. W. SINDALL, F.C.S.
CONSULTING CHEMIST TO THE WOOD PULP AND PAPER TRADES; LECTURER
ON PAPER-MAKING FOR THE HERTFORDSHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL, THE
BUCKS COUNTY COUNCIL, THE PRINTING AND STATIONERY
TRADES AT EXETER HALL, 1903-4, THE INSTITUTE
OF PRINTERS; TECHNICAL ADVISER TO THE
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, 1905
AUTHOR OF "PAPER TECHNOLOGY," "THE SAMPLING OF WOOD PULP"
JOINT AUTHOR OF "THE C.B.S. UNITS, OR STANDARDS OF PAPER
TESTING," "THE APPLICATIONS OF WOOD PULP," ETC.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, AND A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS
RELATING TO CELLULOSE AND PAPER-MAKING
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS
1908
PREFACE
Paper-making, in common with many other industries, is one in which
both engineering and chemistry play important parts. Unfortunately
the functions of the engineer and chemist are generally regarded as
independent of one another, so that the chemist is only called in by
the engineer when efforts along the lines of mechanical improvement
have failed, and _vice versa_. It is impossible, however, to draw a
hard and fast line, and the best results in the art of paper-making are
only possible when the manufacturer appreciates the fact that the skill
of both is essential to progress and commercial success.
In the present elementary text-book it is only proposed to give an
outline of the various stages of manufacture and to indicate some of
the improvements made during recent years.
The author begs to acknowledge his indebtedness to manufacturers and
others who have given permission for the use of illustrations.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix
CHAPTER
I. HISTORICAL NOTICE 1
II. CELLULOSE AND PAPER-MAKING FIBRES 20
III. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM RAGS 47
IV. ESPARTO AND STRAW 72
V. WOOD PULP, AND WOOD PULP PAPERS 95
VI. BROWN PAPERS AND BOARDS 126
VII. SPECIAL KINDS OF PAPER 137
VIII. CHEMICALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING 153
IX. THE PROCESS OF "BEATING" 175
X. THE DYEING AND COLOURING OF PAPER PULP 199
XI. PAPER MILL MACHINERY 214
XII. THE DETERIORATION OF PAPER 229
XIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 253
INDEX 273
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. SHEET OF PAPYRUS, SHOWING THE LAYERS CROSSING ONE
ANOTHER 3
2. AN EARLY PAPER MILL (FROM "KULTURHISTORISCHEN BILDERBUCH,"
A.D. 1564) 10
3. THE PAPER MILL OF ULMAN STROMER, A.D. 1390 (SUPPOSED
TO BE THE OLDEST KNOWN DRAWING OF A PAPER MILL) 12
4. THE FIRST PAPER MACHINE, A.D. 1802. PLAN AND ELEVATION 17
5. THE IMPROVED PAPER MACHINE OF A.D. 1810 18
6. A RAG SORTING HOUSE 47
7. A RAG DUSTER 49
8. A RAG CUTTER 50
9. INTERIOR OF PAPER MILL FOR HAND-MADE PAPER (R. BATCHELOR
& SONS) 51
10. VIEW OF A RAG BOILER, SHOWING CONNECTIONS 52
11. A BREAKING AND WASHING ENGINE 54
12. OETTEL AND HAAS' APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF
ELECTROLYTIC BLEACH LIQUOR 58
13. THE "HOLLANDER" BEATING ENGINE 59
14. THE HAND MOULD, SHOWING FRAME AND DECKLE 61
15. APPARATUS FOR SIZING PAPER IN CONTINUOUS ROLLS 63
16. A SUPERCALENDER 65
17. THE FIRST WATERMARK IN PAPER 67
18. COTTON 69
19. LINEN 70
20. AN ESPARTO DUSTER 74
21. SINCLAIR'S "VOMITING" ESPARTO BOILER 75
22. A PORION EVAPORATOR 76
23. SCOTT'S MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR 79
24. A PRESSE-PÂTE FOR ESPARTO PULP 85
25. ESPARTO PULP 88
26. A CYLINDRICAL DIGESTER FOR BOILING FIBRE 89
27. STRAW 93
28. A PAIR OF BARKERS FOR REMOVING BARK FROM LOGS OF WOOD 98
29. VIEW OF HORIZONTAL GRINDER (A), WITH SECTION (B) 99
30. A VERTICAL GRINDER FOR MAKING HOT GROUND MECHANICAL
WOOD PULP 101
31. CENTRIFUGAL SCREEN FOR WOOD PULP 102
32. SECTION OF CENTRIFUGAL SCREEN FOR WOOD PULP 103
33. WOOD PULP DIGESTER, PARTLY IN ELEVATION, PARTLY IN
SECTION 106
34. VIEW OF ORDINARY SULPHUR-BURNING OVENS 108
35. SPRUCE WOOD PULP 114
36. MECHANICAL WOOD PULP 115
37. THE SCREENS FOR REMOVING COARSE FIBRES FROM BEATEN
PULP 118
38. THE PAPER MACHINE (WET END SHOWING WIRE) 119
39. PAPER MACHINE SHOWING WIRE, PRESS ROLLS, AND DRYING
CYLINDERS 123
40. SINGLE CYLINDER OR YANKEE MACHINE 130
41. SECTION OF WET PRESS, OR BOARD MACHINE 131
42. DOUBLE CYLINDER BOARD MACHINE 133
43. APPARATUS FOR MAKING PARCHMENT PAPER 138
44. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PLANT FOR MAKING "ART" PAPER 143
45. SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF "COATING" PLANT 144
46. COTTON PULP BEATEN 8 HOURS 179
47. COTTON PULP BEATEN 37 HOURS 180
48. PLAN AND SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF A "HOLLANDER" 185
49. BEATING ENGINE WITH FOUR BEATER ROLLS 186
50. UMPHERSTON BEATER 188
51. SECTION OF UMPHERSTON BEATING ENGINE 189
52. NUGENT'S BEATING ENGINE WITH PADDLES FOR CIRCULATING
THE PULP 190
53. A "TOWER" BEATING ENGINE WITH CENTRIFUGAL PUMP FOR
CIRCULATING PULP 191
54. WORKING PARTS OF A MODERN REFINING ENGINE 192
55. CONVENTIONAL DIAGRAM OF A WATER SOFTENING PLANT 216
56. AN "ENCLOSED" STEAM ENGINE 220
57. AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN PAPER MACHINE 222
58. DIAGRAM OF THE "EIBEL" PROCESS 223
THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL NOTICE
_History._--The art of paper-making is undoubtedly one of the most
important industries of the present day. The study of its development
from the early bygone ages when men were compelled to find some means
for recording important events and transactions is both interesting and
instructive, so that a short summary of the known facts relating to the
history of paper may well serve as an introduction to an account of the
manufacture and use of this indispensable article.
_Tradition._--The early races of mankind contented themselves with
keeping alive the memory of great achievements by means of tradition.
Valiant deeds were further commemorated by the planting of trees, the
setting up of heaps of stones, and the erection of clumsy monuments.
_Stone Obelisks._--The possibility of obtaining greater accuracy by
carving the rude hieroglyphics of men and animals, birds and plants,
soon suggested itself as an obvious improvement; and as early as B.C.
4000 the first records which conveyed any meaning to later ages were
faithfully inscribed, and for the most part consigned to the care of
the priests.
_Clay Tablets._--The ordinary transactions of daily life, the writings
of literary and scientific men, and all that was worthy of note in
the history of such nations as Chaldea and Assyria have come down to
us also, inscribed on clay tablets, which were rendered durable by
careful baking. On a tablet of clay, one of the earliest specimens of
writing in existence, now preserved in the British Museum, is recorded
a proposal of marriage, written about B.C. 1530, from one of the
Pharaohs, asking for the hand of the daughter of a Babylonian king.
_Waxed Boards._--Bone, ivory, plates of metal, lead, gold, and brass,
were freely used, and at an early period wooden boards covered with
wax were devised by the Romans. In fact, any material having a soft
impressionable surface was speedily adopted as a medium for the
permanent expression of men's fancy, so that it is not strange to find
instances of documents written on such curious substances as animal
skins, hides, dried intestines, and leather. The works of Homer,
preserved in one of the Egyptian libraries in the days of Ptolemæus
Philadelphus, were said to have been written in letters of gold on the
skins of serpents.
_Leaves, Bark._--The first actual advance in the direction of paper,
as commonly understood, was made when the leaves and bark of trees
were utilised. The latter especially came speedily into favour, and
the extensive use of the inner bark (_liber_) made rapid headway.
Manuscripts and documents written on this liber are to be found in many
museums.
_Papyrus._--The discovery of the wonderful properties of the Egyptian
papyrus was a great step in developing the art of paper-making. The
date of this discovery is very uncertain, but one of the earliest
references is to be found in the works of Pliny, where mention is made
of the writings of Numa, who lived about B.C. 670. This celebrated
plant had long been noted for its value in the manufacture of mats,
cordage, and wearing apparel, but its fame rests upon its utility in
quite a different direction, namely, for conveying to posterity the
written records of those early days which have proved a source of
unending interest to antiquaries.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Sheet of Papyrus, showing the layers crossing
one another (Evans).]
The Egyptian papyrus was made from the fine layers of fibrous matter
surrounding the parent stem. These layers were removed by means of a
sharp tool, spread out on a board, moistened with some gummy water, and
then covered with similar layers placed over them crosswise. The sheets
so produced were pressed, dried, and polished with a piece of ivory or
a smooth stone. Long rolls of papyrus were formed by pasting several
sheets together to give what was termed a _volumen_.
_Roman Papyri._--The Romans improved the process of manufacture,
and were able to produce a variety of papers, to which they gave
different names, such as _Charta hieratica_ (holy paper, used by
priests), _Charta Fanniana_ (a superior paper made by Fannius), _Charta
emporetica_ (shop or wrapping paper), _Charta Saitica_ (after the city
of Sais), etc. The papyrus must have been used in great quantities
for this purpose, since recent explorations in Eastern countries have
brought to light enormous finds of papyri in a wonderful state of
preservation. In 1753, when the ruins of Herculaneum were unearthed, no
less than 1,800 rolls were discovered. During the last ten years huge
quantities have been brought to England.
_Parchment._--Parchment succeeded papyrus as an excellent writing
material, being devised as a substitute for the latter by the
inhabitants of Pergamus on account of the prohibited exportation of
Egyptian papyrus. For many centuries parchment held a foremost place
amongst the available materials serving the purpose of paper, and even
to-day it is used for important legal documents. This parchment was
made from the skins of sheep and goats, which were first steeped in
lime pits, and then scraped. By the plentiful use of chalk and pumice
stone the colour and surface of the parchment were greatly enhanced.
Vellum, prepared in a similar manner from the skins of calves, was
also extensively employed as a writing material, and was probably the
first material used for binding books. Until comparatively recent times
the term "parchment" comprehended vellum, but the latter substance is
much superior to that manufactured from sheep and goat skins.
_Paper._--The Chinese are now generally credited with the art of making
paper of the kind most familiar to us, that is from fibrous material
first reduced to the condition of pulp. Materials such as strips of
bark, leaves, and papyrus cannot of course be included in a definition
like this, which one writer has condensed into the phrase "Paper is an
aqueous deposit of vegetable fibre."
A.D. 105.--The earliest reference to the manufacture of paper is to be
found in the Chinese Encyclopædia, wherein it is stated that Ts'ai-Lun,
a native of Kuei-yang, entered the service of the Emperor Ho-Ti in A.D.
75, and devoting his leisure hours to study, suggested the use of silk
and ink as a substitute for the bamboo tablet and stylus. Subsequently
he succeeded in making paper from bark, tow, old linen, and fish nets
(A.D. 105). He was created marquis in A.D. 114 for his long years of
service and his ability.
A.D. 704.--It has been commonly asserted that raw cotton, or cotton
wool, was first used by the Arabs at this date for the manufacture
of paper, they having learnt the art from certain Chinese prisoners
captured at the occupation of Samarkand by the Arabs. The complete
conquest of Samarkand does not, however, seem to have taken place until
A.D. 751, and there is little doubt that this date should be accepted
for the introduction of the art of paper-making among the Arabs.
_Recent Researches._--Professors Wiesner and Karabacek have ascertained
one or two most important and interesting facts concerning the actual
manufacture of _pure_ rag paper. In 1877 a great quantity of ancient
manuscripts was found at El-Faijum, in Egypt, comprising about 100,000
documents in ten languages, extending from B.C. 1400 to A.D.
1300, many of which were written on paper. The documents were closely
examined in 1894 by these experts, at the request of the owner, the
Archduke Rainer of Austria.
Researches of a later date resulted in the discovery of some further
interesting documents which appear to establish with some degree of
certainty the approximate date at which _pure_ rag paper, that is,
paper made entirely from rag, was manufactured.
Chinese documents dated A.D. 768-786, which have been reported upon
by Dr. Hoernle, and others dated A.D. 781-782-787, reported upon by
Dr. Stein as recently as 1901, appear to show what materials were used
by the Chinese paper-makers in Western Turkestan. The manuscripts
mentioned were dug out from the sand-buried site of Dandan Uilig, in
Eastern Turkestan.
Professor Wiesner found that all the papers of the Rainer collection
were made of _linen_ rag, with an occasional trace of _cotton_,
probably added accidentally. The earliest dated paper was a letter A.D.
874, but two documents, which from other reasons could be identified as
belonging to A.D. 792, proved that at the end of the eighth century the
Arabs understood the art of making linen paper on network moulds, and
further that they added starch for the purpose of sizing and loading
the paper.
Professor Karabacek advances some ingenious explanations as to the
origin of the idea that raw cotton was first used for paper-making,
and he suggests that the legend owes its origin to a misunderstanding
of terms. In mediæval times paper was known as _Charta bombycina_, and
sometimes as _Charta Damascena_, the latter from its place of origin.
Paper was also made in Bambyce, and a natural confusion arose between
the terms, since the word _bombyx_ was used as a name for cotton, and
the paper commonly in use suggested that material to the mind of the
observer, and the name became corrupted to _bombycina_.
The suggestions of Professor Karabacek, together with the microscopical
investigations of Dr. Wiesner, appear to show that paper made entirely
from raw cotton fibre was not known.
_Invention of Rag Paper._--Dr. Hoernle, in discussing this question,
points out that, taking A.D. 751 as the date when the Arabs learnt
the art of paper-making, and A.D. 792 as the date when paper made
entirely of linen rag was produced, the date of the invention of rag
paper must lie between these two dates. The documents discovered in
Eastern Turkestan and bearing the dates mentioned, which papers fill
up the gap between the years A.D. 751 and A.D. 792, were found to
contain certain raw fibres, such as China grass, mulberry, laurel, as
the main constituents, and macerated flax and hemp rags as the minor
constituents.
The addition and substitution of rag evidently increased in course of
time, and since the improvement thus effected soon became an obvious
and established fact, the raw fibres were omitted. Hence the credit
of the manufacture of pure rag paper would be given to the people of
Samarkand, the date being between the years A.D. 760 and A.D. 792; and
further the constitution of such paper has been shown by Dr. Wiesner to
be linen, and not cotton, as commonly stated.
These researches are of such interest that we quote Professor Hoernle's
translation of the summary of the principal results of Dr. Wiesner's
examination of the Eastern Turkestani papers so recently discovered:--
"Taking into account the dates assigned to the papers on palæographic
grounds, the following conclusions may be drawn from the examination of
their material:--
"(1) The oldest of the Eastern Turkestani papers, dating from the
fourth and fifth centuries A.D., are made of a mixture of raw fibres
of the bast of various dicotyledonous plants. From these fibres the
half-stuff for the paper was made by means of a rude mechanical process.
"(2) Similar papers, made of a mixture of raw fibres, are also found
belonging to the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries. But in this
period there also occur papers which are made of a mixture of rudely
pounded rags and of raw fibres extracted by maceration.
"(3) In the same period papers make their appearance in which special
methods are used to render them capable of being written on, viz.,
coating with gypsum and sizing with starch or with a gelatine extracted
from lichen.
"(4) In the seventh and eighth centuries both kinds of papers are of
equal frequency, those made of the raw fibre of various dicotyledonous
plants and those made of a mixture of rags and raw fibres. In this
period the method of extracting the raw fibre is found to improve from
a rude stamping to maceration; but that of preparing the rags remains a
rude stamping, and in the half-stuff thus produced from rags it is easy
to distinguish the raw fibre from the crushed and broken fibre of the
rags.
"(5) The old Eastern Turkestani (Chinese) paper can be distinguished
from the old Arab paper, not only by the raw fibres which accompany the
rag fibres, but also by the far-reaching destruction of the latter.
"(6) The previous researches of Professor Karabacek and the author had
shown that the invention of rag paper was not made in Europe by Germans
or Italians about the turn of the fourteenth century, but that the
Arabs knew its preparation as early as the end of the eighth century.
"The present researches now further show that the beginnings of the
preparation of rag paper can be traced to the Chinese in the fifth or
fourth centuries, or even earlier.
"The Chinese method of preparing rag paper never progressed beyond its
initial low stage. It was the Arabs who, having been initiated into the
art by the Chinese, improved the method of preparing it, and carried it
to that stage of perfection in which it was received from them by the
civilised peoples of Europe in the mediæval ages.
"(7) The author has shown that the process of sizing the paper with
starch in order to improve it was already known to the Arabs in the
eighth century. In the fourteenth century the knowledge of it was lost,
animal glue being substituted in the place of starch, till finally in
the nineteenth century, along with the introduction of paper machines,
the old process was resuscitated. But the invention of it was due to
the Chinese. The oldest Eastern Turkestani paper which is sized with
starch belongs to the eighth century.
"(8) The Chinese were not only the inventors of felted paper and the
imitators of rag paper--though in the preparation of the latter they
made use of rags only as a surrogate by the side of raw fibres--but
they must also be credited with being the forerunners of the modern
method of preparing 'cellulose paper.' For their very ancient practice
of extracting the fibre from the bark and other parts of plants by
means of maceration is in principle identical with the modern method of
extracting 'cellulose' by means of certain chemical processes."
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--An Early Paper Mill (from "Kulturhistorisches
Bilderbuch," A.D. 1564).]
_Paper-making in Europe._--The introduction of the art into Europe
seems to have taken place early in the eleventh century, when the Moors
manufactured paper at Toledo. The early authorities who have studied
this subject express the opinion that the paper produced in Europe at
this time was made from cotton rags and from raw cotton, but, in view
of the recent researches into the composition of paper, it is difficult
to say how this idea arose, unless we accept the explanation offered by
Professor Karabacek. In standard encyclopædias the following statements
are made as to existing early documents printed on paper made in
Europe:--
A.D. 1075. Syriac manuscripts of early date in the British
Museum.
A.D. 1102. A document printed on cotton, being a deed of King
Roger of Sicily, now at Vienna.
A.D. 1178. A treaty of peace between the Kings of Aragon and
Spain, said to be printed on linen paper, preserved at
Barcelona.
A.D. 1223. The "Liber Plegierum," printed on rough cotton
paper.
One of the most interesting books on this subject is the "Historical
Account of the Substances used to describe Events from the Earliest
Date," by Matthias Koops, published in 1800. This writer appears to
have obtained most of his information from German authorities.
The industry of paper-making passed through Spain into Italy, France,
and the Netherlands. In 1189 paper was being manufactured at Hainault,
in France, and the industry rapidly spread all over the Continent.
In 1390 Ulman Stromer established a mill at Nuremberg, in Germany,
employing a great number of men, who were obliged to take an oath that
they would not teach anyone the art of paper-making or make paper on
their own account. In the sixteenth century the Dutch endeavoured
to protect their industry by making the exportation of moulds for
paper-making an offence punishable by death.
The bulk of the paper used in England was imported from France and
Holland, and it was many years before the industry was established
in England. This is not surprising in view of the protective and
conservative policy of the Continental paper-makers.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Paper Mill of Ulman Stromer, A.D. 1390
(supposed to be the oldest known drawing of a Paper Mill).]
_Paper-making in England._--The actual period at which the manufacture
of paper was first started in England is somewhat uncertain. The
first mention of any paper-maker is found in Wynkyn de Worde's "De
Proprietatibus Rerum," printed by Caxton in 1495, the reference being
as follows:--
And John Tate the younger, joye mote he brok,
Which late hathe in England, doo
Make thys paper thynne,
That now in our Englyssh
Thys booke is prynted inne.
John Tate was the owner of a mill at Stevenage, Hertfordshire. In the
household book of Henry VII. an entry for the year 1499 reads, "Geven
in rewarde to Tate of the mylne, 6_s._ 8_d._"
In 1588 a paper mill was erected by Sir John Spielman, a German, who
obtained a licence from Queen Elizabeth "for the sole gathering for ten
years of all rags, etc., necessary for the making of paper." This paper
mill was eulogised by Thomas Churchyard in a long poem of forty-four
stanzas, of which we quote two:--
I prayse the man that first did paper make,
The only thing that sets all virtues forth;
It shoes new bookes, and keeps old workes awake,
Much more of price than all the world is worth:
It witnesse bears of friendship, time, and troth,
And is the tromp of vice and virtue both;
Without whose help no hap nor wealth is won,
And by whose ayde great works and deedes are done.
Six hundred men are set to worke by him
That else might starve, or seeke abroad their bread,
Who now live well, and goe full brave and trim,
And who may boast they are with paper fed.
Strange is that foode, yet stranger made the same,
For greater help, I gesse, he cannot give
Than by his help to make poore folk to live.
The industry made but little progress for some time after Spielman's
death, and up till 1670 the supplies of paper were obtained almost
entirely from France. The first British patent for paper-making was
granted to Charles Hildeyard in 1665 for "the way and art of making
blue paper used by sugar bakers and others." The trade received a great
impetus on account of the presence of Huguenots who had fled to England
from France in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes in
1685.
In 1695 a company was formed in Scotland for the "manufacture of white
and printing paper."
Improvements in the art were slow until 1760, when Whatman, whose name
has since become famous in connection with paper, commenced operations
at Maidstone. Meantime the methods by which the rags were converted
into paper were exceedingly slow and clumsy, so that the output of
finished paper was very small.
Some interesting details as to the early manufacture of paper in
England are given by Mr. Rhys Jenkins, and from his account of "Early
Attempts at Paper-making in England, 1495-1788," the following extracts
have been made:--
About
1496. First attempts at paper-making by John Tate at Hertford.
1496. Tate's paper used by Wynkyn de Worde in "De Proprietatibus
Rerum."
1557. A paper mill in existence at Fenditton, Cambridge.
1569. A mill at Bemmarton, Wilts.
1574. Mill erected at Osterley, Middlesex, by Sir Thomas Gresham.
1585. Richard Tottyl asked for sole right to make paper for
thirty-one years, which was not granted.
1588. John Spilman erected a mill at Dartford, Kent. Granted a
patent for sole manufacture of paper.
1588. Churchyard's poem on the "Paper Myll built near Darthford by
Master Spilman."
1612. Robert Heyricke's mill at Cannock Chase, Staffordshire.
1636. The three or four paper mills in the neighbourhood of Hounslow
and Colnbrook temporarily shut down on account of the plague,
the collection of rags having been forbidden.
1665. Patent granted to Charles Hildeyard for an invention, "the way
and art of making blew paper used by sugar bakers and others."
1675. Approximate date of erection of mills at Wolvercote, Oxford,
where the Oxford India paper is now made.
1678. Mill at Byfleet, Surrey, mentioned by Evelyn in his diary.
1682. Bladen--A patent for an engine and process whereby rags are
wrought into paper.
1684. Baysmaker--A patent for "the art and mistery of making paper
in whole sheets."
1684. Jackson--A patent for "an engine, either for wind or water,
which prepareth all materials whereof paper may be made."
Evidently Jackson was acquainted with the "Hollander" beating
engine.
1686. A charter granted to the "White Paper Makers' Company" for the
sole right of making paper exceeding 4_s._ a ream in value.
1674. Annual importation of paper, presumably from France, stated to
be 160,000 reams, of average value of 5_s._ (Somers).
1689. Trade with France prohibited by royal proclamation.
1696. Price of paper very high owing to scarcity, being 11_s._ per
ream.
1712. Duties levied on all kinds of paper, manufactured or imported.
1725. Monopoly of making paper for Bank of England notes granted to
De Portal, of the Laverstoke mills, Hampshire. This paper is
still made by the firm of Messrs. Portal.
1739. Galliott and Parry estimated that there were 600 paper mills
in England, making 6,000 reams a day. The Commissioner of
Excise reported only 278.
1739. James Whatman erected a mill at Boxley, Maidstone.
1758. Baskerville printed an edition of Virgil on so-called "woven"
paper.
_Early Methods._--The most rapid development of the industry appears
to have taken place in Holland. The rags used for paper-making were
moistened with water and stored up in heaps until they fermented
and became hot. By this means the dirt and non-fibrous matter was
rendered partially soluble, so that on washing a suitable paper pulp
was obtained. The washed rags were then placed in a stamping machine
resembling an ordinary pestle and mortar. The mortars were constructed
of stone and wood, and the stamps were kept in motion by levers which
were raised by projections fixed on the shaft of a waterwheel. The
operation of beating thus occupied a long period, but the paper
produced was of great strength.
The invention of the "Hollander," a simple yet ingenious engine which
is deservedly known by the name of the country in which it first
originated, gave a tremendous impetus to the art of paper-making,
as by its means the quantity of material which could be treated in
twenty-four hours was greatly increased. Unfortunately the date of the
invention of this important machine has not been definitely traced. The
earliest mention of it seems to occur in Sturm's "Vollständige Mühlen
Baukunst," published in 1718. It was in extensive use at Saardam in
1697, so that the invention is at least some years previous to 1690.
On this point Koops says: "In Gelderland are a great many mills, but
some so small that they are only able to make 400 reams of paper
annually, and there are also water mills with stampers, like those
in Germany. But in the province of Holland there are windmills,
with cutting and grinding engines, which do more in two hours than
the others do in twelve. In Saardam 1,000 persons are employed in
paper-making."
THE FIRST FOURDRINIER PAPER MACHINE.
Up till the year 1799 paper was made entirely in sheets on a hand
mould, but during the last few years of the eighteenth century a
Frenchman, Nicholas Louis Robert, manager for M. Didot, who owned a
paper mill at Essones, had been experimenting for the purpose of making
paper in the form of a continuous sheet, and eventually produced some
of considerable length.
The idea was taken to England by Didot's brother-in-law, Gamble, and
introduced to the notice of Messrs. Fourdrinier, wholesale stationers,
of London.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The First Paper Machine, A.D. 1802. Plan and
Elevation.]
The first machine was naturally a very crude affair. It consisted of an
endless wire cloth stretched in a horizontal position on two rollers,
one of which rotated freely in a bearing attached to the frame of the
machine, the other being fitted in an adjustable bearing so that the
wire could be tightened up when necessary.
The beaten pulp, contained in a vat placed below the wire, was thrown
up in a continual stream upon the surface of the wire, and carried
forward towards the squeezing rolls. A shaking motion was imparted to
the travelling wire so as to cause the fibres to felt properly. A great
deal of the water fell through the meshes of the gauze, and further
quantities were removed by means of the press rolls. The wet paper was
then wound up on to a wooden roller, which was taken out as soon as
sufficient paper had been made.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Improved Paper Machine of A.D. 1810.]
The whole process was carried on under great difficulties, but
substantial improvements were soon made by the enterprising
Fourdriniers, who commenced operations in Bermondsey, employing Mr.
Bryan Donkin, then in the service of Messrs. Hall & Co., of Dartford,
who had shown himself keenly interested in the machine. In 1803 the
first "Fourdrinier," so called, was built at Bermondsey, and erected at
Two Waters Mill in Herefordshire.
In this machine the mixture of pulp and water was carried forward
between two wires, and, after passing through the couch rolls,
transferred to an endless felt. This arrangement proved to be faulty
because the water did not escape freely enough from the wire, and a
great deal of the paper was spoilt.
Donkin, however, hit upon a simple but effective device for curing this
fault by altering the relative position of the two couch rolls. Instead
of keeping the two rolls exactly in a vertical position one over the
other, he placed them at a slight angle so that the upper one should
bear gently on the web of paper carried by the wire before receiving
the full pressure of the rolls, and thus remove a greater proportion of
the water. In this way the paper was firmer and less liable to break
when pressed between the couch rolls, an additional advantage being
secured in the fact that the upper wire could be dispensed with.
The various improvements effected resulted in a machine the details of
which appear in the appended diagram, the device of the inclined couch
rolls being fitted about 1810.
The mixture of water and pulp flowed from a stuff chest into a small
regulating box and on to the wire over a sloping board. The pulp at
once formed into a wet sheet of paper, the water falling through the
meshes of the wire, being caught in a bucket-shaped appliance, and
conveyed back to the regulating box. The stream of pulp was confined
upon the wire by means of a deckle. Further quantities of water were
removed by the aid of a pair of squeezing rolls before the web passed
through the couch rolls after which the paper was reeled up on a wooden
spindle.
From this date the success of the machine was assured, though the
inventor and his colleagues were practically ruined, an experience only
too common with the early pioneers of many great and useful industrial
enterprises. In fact, the firm of Messrs. Donkin were the only people
to profit from the invention, for they manufactured a number of
machines, as stated in the report of the Jurors of the Exhibition of
1851, and from 1803 to 1851 no less than 190 Fourdriniers were set to
work.