Task Completed--The Mountain-top--Change in the Face of
Nature--Original Importance of Newera Ellia--"The Path of a Thousand
Princes"--Vestiges of Former Population--Mountains--The Highlands of
Ouva--Ancient Methods of Irrigation--Remains of Aqueducts--The Vale of
Rubies--Ancient Ophir--Discovery of Gold-Mineral Resources--Native
Blacksmiths.
In a climate like that of Newera Ellia, even twelve months make a great
change in the appearance of a new settlement; plants and shrubs spring
up with wonderful rapidity, and a garden of one year's growth, without
attendance, would be a wilderness.
A few years necessarily made a vast change in everything. All kinds of
experiments had been made, and those which succeeded were persevered
in. I discovered that excellent beer might be made at this elevation
(six thousand two hundred feet), and I accordingly established a small
brewery.
The solitary Leicester ram had propagated a numerous family, and a
flock of fat ewes, with their lambs, throve to perfection. Many
handsome young heifers looked very like the emigrant bull in the face,
and claimed their parentage. The fields were green; the axe no longer
sounded in the forests: a good house stood in the centre of
cultivation; a road of two miles in length cut through the estate, and
the whole place looked like an adopted "home." All the trials and
disappointments of the beginning were passed away, and the real was a
picture which I had ideally contemplated years before. The task was
finished.
In the interim, public improvements had not been neglected; an
extremely pretty church had been erected and a public reading-room
established; but, with the exception of one good house which had been
built, private enterprise had lain dormant. As usual, from January to
May, Newera Ellia was overcrowded with months of visitors, and nearly
empty during the other months of the year.
All Ceylon people dread the wet season at Newera Ellia, which continues
from June to December.
I myself prefer it to what is termed the dry season, at which time the
country is burnt up by drought. There is never more rain at Newera
Ellia than vegetation requires, and not one-fourth the quantity fills
at this elevation, compared to that of the low country. It may be more
continuous, but it is of a lighter character, and more akin to "Scotch
mist." The clear days during the wet season are far more lovely than
the constant glare of the summer months, and the rays of the sun are
not so powerful.
There cannot be a more beautiful sight than the view of sunrise from
the summit of Pedrotallagalla, the highest mountain in Ceylon, which,
rising to the height of 8300 feet, looks down upon Newera Ellia, some
two thousand feet below upon one side, and upon the interminable depths
of countless ravines and valleys at its base.
There is a feeling approaching the sublime when a solitary man thus
stands upon the highest point of earth, before the dawn of day, and
waits the first rising of the sun. Nothing above him but the dusky
arch of heaven. Nothing on his level but empty space,--all beneath,
deep beneath his feet. From childhood he has looked to heaven as the
dwelling of the Almighty, and he now stands upon that lofty summit in
the silence of utter solitude; his hand, as he raises it above his
head, the highest mark upon the sea-girt land; his form above all
mortals upon this land, the nearest to his God. Words, till now
unthought of, tingle in his ears: "He went up into a mountain apart to
pray." He feels the spirit which prompted the choice of such a lonely
spot, and he stands instinctively uncovered, as the first ray of light
spreads like a thread of fire across the sky.
And now the distant hill-tops, far below, struggle through the snowy
sheet of mist, like islands in a fairy sea; and far, how far his eye
can scan, where the faint line upon the horizon marks the ocean!
Mountain and valley, hill and plain, with boundless forest, stretch
beneath his feet, far as his sight can gaze, and the scene, so solemnly
beautiful, gradually wakens to his senses; the birds begin to chirp;
the dew-drops fall heavily from the trees, as the light breeze stirs
from an apparent sleep; a golden tint spreads over the sea of mist
below; the rays dart lightning-like upon the eastern sky; the mighty
orb rises in all the fullness of his majesty, recalling the words of
Omnipotence: "Let there be light!"
The sun is risen! the misty sea below mounts like a snowy wreath around
the hill-tops, and then, like a passing thought, it vanishes. A glassy
clearness of the atmosphere reveals the magnificent view of Nature,
fresh from her sleep; every dewy leaf gilded by the morning sun, every
rock glistening with moisture in his bright rays, mountain and valley,
wood and plain, alike rejoicing in his beams.
And now, the sun being risen, we gaze from our lofty post upon Newera
Ellia, lying at our feet. We trace the river winding its silvery
course through the plain, and for many miles the alternate plains and
forests joining in succession.
How changed are some features of the landscape within the few past
years, and how wonderful the alteration made by man on the face of
Nature! Comparatively but a few years ago, Newera Ellia was
undiscovered--a secluded plain among the mountaintops, tenanted by the
elk and boar. The wind swept over it, and the mists hung around the
mountains, and the bright summer with its spotless sky succeeded, but
still it was unknown and unseen except by the native bee-hunter in his
rambles for wild honey. How changed! The road encircles the plain, and
carts are busy in removing the produce of the land. Here, where wild
forests stood, are gardens teeming with English flowers; rosy-faced
children and ruddy countrymen are about the cottage doors; equestrians
of both sexes are galloping round the plain, and the cry of the hounds
is ringing on the mountain-side.
How changed! There is an old tree standing upon a hill, whose gnarled
trunk has been twisted by the winter's wind for many an age, and so
screwed is its old stem that the axe has spared it, out of pity, when
its companions were all swept away and the forest felled. And many a
tale that old tree could tell of winter's blasts and broken boughs, and
storms which howled above its head, when all was wilderness around.
The eagle has roosted in its top, the monkeys have gamboled in its
branches, and the elephants have rubbed their tough flanks against its
stem in times gone by; but it now throws a shadow upon a Christian's
grave, and the churchyard lies beneath its shade. The church-bell
sounds where the elephant trumpeted of yore. The sunbeam has
penetrated where the forest threw its dreary shade, and a ray of light
has shone through the moral darkness of the spot.
The completion of the church is the grand improvement in Newera Ellia.
Although Newera Ellia was in the wild state described when first
discovered by Europeans, it is not to be supposed that its existence
was unknown to the Cingalese. The name itself proves its former
importance to the kings of Kandy, as Newera Ellia signifies "Royal
Plains." Kandy is termed by the Cingalese "Newera," as it was the
capital of Ceylon and the residence of the king.
However wild the country may be, and in many portions unvisited by
Europeans, still every high mountain and every little plain in this
wilderness of forest is not only known to the natives of the adjacent
low country, but has its separate designation. There is no feature of
the country without its name, although the immense tracts of mountain
are totally uninhabited, and the nearest villages are some ten or
twelve miles distant, between two and three thousand feet below.
There are native paths from village to village across the mountains,
which, although in appearance no more than deer-runs, have existed for
many centuries, and are used by the natives even to this day. The great
range of forest-covered Newera Ellia mountains divides the two
districts of Ouva and Kotmalie, and these native paths have been formed
to connect the two by an arduous accent upon either side, and a
comparatively level cut across the shoulders of the mountains, through
alternate plain and forest, for some twenty-five miles. These paths
would never be known to Europeans were it not for the distant runs of
the hounds, in following which, after some hours of fatiguing
jungle-work, I have come upon a path. The notches on the treestems
have proved its artificial character, and by following its course I
have learnt the country.
There is not a path, stream, hill, or plain, within many miles of
Newera Ellia, that I do not know intimately, although, when the
character of the country is scanned by a stranger from some
mountain-top, the very act of traversing it appears impossible. This
knowledge has been gained by years of unceasing hunting, and by
perseveringly following up the hounds wherever they have gone. From
sunrise till nightfall I have often ploughed along through alternate
jungles and plains, listening eagerly for the cry of the hounds, and at
length discovering portions of the country which I had never known to
exist.
There is a great pleasure in thus working out the features of a wild
country, especially in an island like Ceylon, which, in every portion,
exhibits traces of former prosperity and immense population. Even
these uninhabited and chilly regions, up to an elevation of seven
thousand feet, are not blank pages in the book of Nature, but the hand
of man is so distinctly traced that the keen observer can read with
tolerable certainty the existence of a nation long since passed away.
As I before mentioned, I pitched my settlement on the verge of the
highland, at the eastern extremity of the Newera Ellia plain, where the
high road commences a sudden descent toward Badulla, thirty-three miles
distant. This spot, forming, a shallow gap, was the ancient native
entrance to Newera Ellia from that side, and the Cingalese designation
for the locality is interpreted "the Path of a Thousand Princes." This
name assists in the proof that Newera Ellia was formerly of some great
importance. A far more enticing name gives an interest to the first
swampy portion of the plain, some three hundred paces beyond, viz.,
"the Valley of Rubies."
Now, having plainly discovered that Newera Ellia was of some great
importance to the natives, let us consider in what that value
consisted. There are no buildings remaining, no ruins, as in other
parts of Ceylon, but a liquid mine of wealth poured from these lofty
regions. The importance of Newera Ellia lay first in its supply of
water, and, secondly, in its gems.
In all tropical countries the first principle of cultivation is the
supply of water, without which the land would remain barren. In a
rice-growing country like Ceylon, the periodical rains are
insufficient, and the whole system of native agriculture depends upon
irrigation. Accordingly, the mountains being the reservoirs from which
the rivers spring, become of vital importance to the country.
The principal mountains in Ceylon are Pedrotallagalla, eight thousand
two hundred and eighty feet; Kirigallapotta, seven thousand nine
hundred; Totapella, eight thousand feet; and Adam's Peak, seven
thousand seven hundred; but although their altitude is so considerable,
they do not give the idea of grandeur which such an altitude would
convey. They do not rise abruptly from a level base, but they are
merely the loftiest of a thousand peaks towering from the highlands of
Ceylon.
The greater portion of the highland district may therefore be compared
to one vast mountain; hill piled upon hill, and peak rising over peak;
ravines of immense depth, forming innumerable conduits for the mountain
torrents. Then, at the elevation of Newera Ellia the heavings of the
land appear to have rested, and gentle undulations, diversified by
plains and forests, extend for some thirty miles. From these
comparatively level tracts and swampy plains the rivers of Ceylon
derive their source and the three loftiest peaks take their base;
Pedrotallagalla rising from the Newera Ellia Plain, "Totapella" and
Kirigallapotta from the Horton Plains.
The whole of the highland district is thus composed of a succession of
ledges of great extent at various elevations, commencing with the
highest, the Horton Plains, seven thousand feet above the sea.
Seven hundred feet below the Horton Plain, the Totapella Plains and
undulating forests continue at this elevation as far as Newera Ellia
for about twenty miles, thus forming the second ledge.
Six miles to the west of Newera Ellia, at a lower elevation of about
nine hundred feet, the district of Dimboola commences, and extends at
this elevation over a vast tract of forest-covered country, stretching
still farther to the west, and containing a small proportion of plain.
At about the same elevation, nine miles on the north of Newera Ellia,
we descend to the Elephant Plains; a beautiful tract of fine grass
country, but of small extent. This tract and that of Dimboola form the
third ledge.
Nine miles to the east of Newera Ellia, at a lower elevation of one
thousand five hundred feet, stretches the Ouva country, forming the
fourth ledge.
The features of this country are totally distinct from any other
portion of Ceylon. A magnificent view extends as far as the horizon,
of undulating open grassland, diversified by the rich crops of paddy
which are grown in each of the innumerable small valleys formed by the
undulations of the ground. Not a tree is to be seen except the low
brushwood which is scantily distributed upon its surface. We emerge
suddenly from the forest-covered mountains of Newera Ellia, and, from a
lofty point on the high road to Badulla, we look down upon the splendid
panorama stretched like a waving sea beneath our feet. The road upon
which we stand is scarped out of the mountain's side. The forest has
ceased, dying off gradually into isolated patches and long ribbon-like
strips on the sides of the mountain, upon which rich grass is growing,
in vivid contrast to the rank and coarse herbage of Newera Ellia,
distant only five miles from the point upon which we stand.
Descending until we reach Wilson's Plain, nine miles from Newera Ellia,
we arrive in the district of Ouva, much like the Sussex Downs as any
place to which it can be compared.
This district comprises about six hundred square miles, and forms the
fourth and last ledge of the high lands of Ceylon. Passes from the
mountains which form the wall-like boundaries of this table-land
descend to the low country in various directions.
The whole of the Ouva district upon the one side, and of the Kotmalee
district on the other side, of tilt Newera Ellia range of mountains,
are, with the exception of the immediate neighborhood of Kandy and
Colombo, the most populous districts of Ceylon.
This is entirely owing, to the never-failing supply of water obtained
from the mountains; and upon this supply the wealth and prosperity of
the country depend.
The ancient history of Ceylon is involved in much obscurity, but
nevertheless we have sufficient data in the existing traces of its
former population to form our opinions of the position and power which
Ceylon occupied in the Eastern Hemisphere when England was in a state
of barbarism. The wonderful remains of ancient cities, tanks and
water-courses throughout the island all prove that the now desolate
regions were tenanted by a multitude--not of savages, but of a race
long since passed away, full of industry and intelligence.
Among the existing traces of former population few are more interesting
than those in the vicinity of Newera Ellia.
Judging from the present supply of water required for the cultivation
of a district containing a certain population, we can arrive at a
tolerably correct idea of the former population by comparing the
present supply of water with that formerly required.
Although the district of Ouva is at present well populated, and every
hollow is taken advantage of for the cultivation of paddy, still the
demand for water in proportion to the supply is comparatively small.
The system of irrigation has necessarily involved immense labor. For
many miles the water is conducted from the mountains through dense
forests, across ravines, round the steep sides of opposing hills, now
leaping into a lower valley into a reservoir, from which it is again
led through this arduous country until it at length reaches the land
which it is destined to render fertile.
There has been a degree of engineering skill displayed in forming
aqueducts through such formidable obstacles; the hills are lined out in
every direction with these proofs of industry, and their winding course
can be traced round the grassy sides of the steep mountains, while the
paddy-fields are seen miles away in the valleys of Ouva stretched far
beneath.
At least eight out of ten of these watercourses are dry, and the
masonry required in the sudden angles of ravines, has, in most cases,
fallen to decay. Even those water-courses still in existence are of
the second class; small streams have been conducted from their original
course, and these serve for the supply of the present population.
From the remains of deserted water-courses of the first class, it is
evident that more than fifty times the volume of water was then
required that is in use at present, and in the same ratio must have
been the amount of population. In those days rivers were diverted from
their natural channels; opposing hills were cut through, and the waters
thus were led into another valley to join a stream flowing in, its
natural bed, whose course, eventually obstructed by a dam, poured its
accumulated waters into canals which branched to various localities.
Not a river in those times flowed in vain. The hill-sides were terraced
out in beautiful cultivation, which are now waving with wild vegetation
and rank lemon grass. The remaining traces of stone walls point out
the ancient boundaries far above the secluded valley now in cultivation.
The nation has vanished, and with it the industry and perseverance of
the era.
We now arrive at the cause of the former importance of Newera Ellia, or
the "Royal Plains."
It has been shown that the very existence of the population depended
upon the supply of water, and that supply was obtained from the
neighborhood of Newera Ellia. Therefore, a king in possession of
Newera Ellia had the most complete command over his subjects; he could
either give or withhold the supply of water at his pleasure, by
allowing its free exit or by altering its course.
Thus, during rebellion, he could starve his people into submission, or
lay waste the land in time of foreign invasion. I have seen in an
impregnable position the traces of an ancient fort, evidently erected
to defend the pass to the main water-course from the low country.
This gives us a faint clue to the probable cause of the disappearance
of the nation.
In time of war or intestine commotion, the water may have been cut off
from the low country, and the exterminating effects of famine may have
laid the whole land desolate. It is, therefore, no longer a matter of
astonishment that the present plain of Newera Ellia should have
received its appellation of the "Royal Plain." In those days there was
no very secure tenure to the throne, and by force alone could a king
retain it. The more bloodthirsty and barbarous the tyrant, the more
was he dreaded by the awe-stricken and trembling population. The power
of such a weapon of annihilation as the command of the waters may be
easily conceived as it invested a king with almost divine authority in
the eyes of his subjects.
Now there is little doubt that the existence of precious gems at Newera
Ellia may have been accidentally discovered in digging the numerous
water-courses in the vicinity; there is, however, no doubt that at some
former period the east end of the plain, called the "Vale of Rubies,"
constituted the royal "diggings." That the king of Kandy did not reside
at Newera Ellia there is little wonder, as a monarch delighting in a
temperature of 85 Fahrenheit would have regarded the climate of a mean
temperature of 60 Fahrenheit as we should that of Nova Zembla.
We may take it for granted, therefore, that when the king came to
Newera Ellia his visit had some object, and we presume that he came to
look at the condition of his water-courses and to superintend the
digging for precious stones; in the same manner that Ceylon governors
of past years visited Arippo during the pearlfishing.
The "diggings" of the kings of Kandy must have been conducted on a most
extensive scale. Not only has the Vale of Rubies been regularly turned
up for many acres, but all the numerous plains in the vicinity are full
of pits, some of very large size and of a depth varying from three to
seventeen feet. The Newera Ellia Plain, the Moonstone Plain, the
Kondapallé Plain, the Elk Plains, the Totapella Plains, the Horton
Plains, the Bopatalava Plains, the Augara Plains (translated "the
Diggings"), and many others extending over a surface of thirty miles,
are all more or less studded by deep pits formed by the ancient
searchers for gems, which in those days were a royal monopoly.
It is not to be supposed that the search for gems would have been thus
persevered in unless it was found to be remunerative; but it is a
curious fact that no Englishmen are ever to be seen at work at this
employment. The natives would still continue the search, were they
permitted, upon the "Vale of Rubies;" but I warned them off on
purchasing the land; and I have several good specimens of gems which I
have discovered by digging two feet beneath the surface.
The surface soil being of a light, peaty quality, the stones, from
their greater gravity, lie beneath, mixed with a rounded quartz gravel,
which in ages past must have been subjected to the action of running
water. This quartz gravel, with its mixture of gems, rests upon a stiff
white pipe-clay.
In this stratum of gravel an infinite number of small, and for the most
part worthless, specimens of gems are found, consisting of sapphire,
ruby, emerald, jacinth, tourmaline, chrysoberyl, zircon, cat's-eye,
"moonstone," and "star-stone." Occasionally a stone of value rewards
the patient digger; but, unless he thoroughly understands it, he is apt
to pass over the gems of most value as pieces of ironstone.
The mineralogy of Ceylon has hitherto been little understood. It has
often been suggested as the "Ophir" of the time of Solomon, and
doubtless, from its production of gems, it might deserve the name.
It has hitherto been the opinion of most writers on Ceylon that the
precious metals do not exist in the island; and Dr. Davy in his work
makes an unqualified assertion to that effect. But from the
discoveries recently made, I am of opinion that it exists in very large
quantities in the mountainous districts of the island.
It is amusing to see the positive assertions of a clever man upset by a
few uneducated sailors.
A few men of the latter class, who had been at the gold diggings both
in California and Australia, happened to engage in a ship bound for
Colombo. Upon arrival they obtained leave from the captain for a
stroll on shore, and they took the road toward Kandy, and when about
half-way it struck them, from the appearance of the rocks in the uneven
bed of a river, called the Maha Oya, "that gold must exist in its
sands." They had no geological reason for this opinion; but the river
happened to be very like those in California in which they had been
accustomed to find gold. They accordingly set to work with a tin pan
to wash the sand, and to the astonishment of every one in Ceylon, and
to the utter confusion of Dr. Davy's opinions, they actually discovered
gold!
The quantity was small, but the men were very sanguine of success, and
were making their preparations for working on a more extensive scale,
when they were all prostrated by jungle fever--a guardian-spirit of the
gold at Amberpussé, which will ever effectually protect it from
Europeans.
They all returned to Colombo, and, when convalescent, they proceeded to
Newera Ellia, naturally concluding that the gold which existed in dust
in the rivers below must be washed down from the richer stores of the
mountains.
Their first discovery of gold at Newera Ellia was on the 14th June,
1854, on the second day of their search in that locality. The first
gold was found in the "Vale of Rubies."
I had advised them to make their first search in that spot for this
reason: that, as the precious stones had there settled in the largest
numbers, from their superior gravity, it was natural to conclude that,
if gold should exist, it would, from its gravity, be somewhere below
the precious stones or in their vicinity.
From the facility with which it has been discovered, it is impossible
to form an opinion as to the quantity or the extent to which it will
eventually be developed. It is equally impossible to predict the
future discoveries which may be made of other minerals. It is well
known that quicksilver was found at Cotta, six miles from Colombo, in
the year 1797. It was in small quantities, and was neglected by the
government, and no extended search was prosecuted. The present search
for gold may bring to light mineral resources of Ceylon which have
hitherto lain hidden.
The minerals proved to exist up to the present time are gold,
quicksilver, plumbago and iron. The two latter are of the finest
quality and in immense abundance. The rocks of Ceylon are primitive,
consisting of granite, gneiss and quartz. Of these the two latter
predominate. Dolomite also exists in large quantities up to an
elevation of five thousand feet, but not beyond this height.
Plumbago is disseminated throughout the whole of both soil and rocks in
Ceylon, and may be seen covering the surface in the drains by the road
side, after a recent shower.
It is principally found at Ratnapoora and at Belligam, in large,
detached kidney-shaped masses, from four to twenty feet below the
surface. The cost of digging and the transport are the only expenses
attending it, as the supply is inexhaustible. Its component parts are
nineteen of carbon and one of iron.
It exists in such quantities, in the gneiss rocks that upon their
decomposition it is seen in bright specks like silver throughout.
This gneiss rock, when in a peculiar stage of decomposition, has the
appearance and consistency of yellow brick, speckled with plumbago. It
exists in this state in immense masses, and forms a valuable
buildingstone, as it can be cut with ease to any shape required, and,
though soft when dug, it hardens by exposure to the air. It has also
the valuable property of withstanding the greatest heat; and for
furnace building it is superior to the best Stourbridge fire-bricks.
The finest quality of iron is found upon the mountains in various
forms, from the small iron-stone gravel to large masses of many tons in
weight protruding from the earth's surface.
So fine is that considered at Newera Ellia and the vicinity that the
native blacksmiths have been accustomed from time immemorial to make
periodical visits for the purpose of smelting the ore. The average
specimens of this produce about eighty per cent. of pure metal, even by
the coarse native process of smelting. The operations are as follows:
Having procured the desired amount of ore, it is rendered as small as
possible by pounding with a hammer.
A platform is then built of clay, about six feet in length by three
feet in height and width.
A small well is formed in the centre of the platform, about eighteen
inches in depth and diameter, egg-shaped.
A few inches from the bottom of this well is an air-passage, connected
with a pipe and bellows.
The well is then filled with alternate layers of charcoal and
pulverized iron ore; the fire is lighted, and the process of smelting
commences.
The bellows are formed of two inflated skins, like a double "bagpipe."
Each foot of the "bellows-blower" is strapped to one skin, the pipes of
the bellows being fixed in the air-hole of the blast. He then works
the skins alternately by moving his feet up and down, being assisted in
this treadmill kind of labor by the elasticity of two bamboos, of eight
or ten feet in length, the butts of which, being firmly fixed in the
ground, enable him to retain his balance by grasping one with either
hand. From the yielding top of each bamboo, a string descends attached
to either big toe; thus the downward pressure of each foot upon the
bellows strains upon the bamboo top as a fish bears upon a fishing-rod,
and the spring of the bamboo assists him in lifting up his leg. Without
this assistance, it would be impossible to continue the exertion for
the time required.
While the "bellows-blower" is thus getting up a blaze, another man
attends upon the well, which he continues to feed alternately with
fresh ore and a corresponding amount of charcoal, every now and then
throwing in a handful of fine sand as a flux.
The return for a whole day's puffing and blowing will be about twenty
pounds weight of badly-smelted iron. This is subsequently remelted,
and is eventually worked up into hatchets, hoes, betel-crackers, etc.,
etc. being of a superior quality to the best Swedish iron.
If the native blacksmith were to value his time at only sixpence per
diem from the day on which he first started for the mountains till the
day that he returned from his iron-smelting expedition, he would find
that his iron would have cost him rather a high price per
hundredweight; and if he were to make the same calculation of the value
of time, he would discover that by the time he had completed one axe he
could have purchased ready made, for one-third the money, an English
tool of superior manufacture. This, however, is not their style of
calculation. Time has no value, according to their crude ideas;
therefore, if they want an article, and can produce it without the
actual outlay of cash, no matter how much time is expended, they will
prefer that method of obtaining it.
Unfortunately, the expense of transit is so heavy from Newera Ellia to
Colombo, that this valuable metal, like the fine timber of the forests,
must remain useless.