THE COMPLETED CANAL.
We may now begin to consider the canal as a whole and in its completed
state. From deep water in Limon Bay, 41-foot depth at mean tide, to deep
water outside Panama, 45-foot depth at mean tide, is just about 50
miles. The greater part of the canal is at high elevation, only 15 miles
of it being at sea-level. We shall note the varying depths and widths of
the channel when we take our imaginary journey along it. Here it is
enough to say that the minimum width will be 300 feet, the minimum depth
41 feet, the breadth and depth being, however, for the greater portion
of its course, greater than these dimensions. Its highest point above
sea-level, as the reader already knows, is 85 feet--that is, 85 feet at
the surface of the water, and 40 feet at the canal bottom. The depth
along this stretch is therefore 45 feet. The Panama Canal, though not
so long as the Kiel and Suez Canals, is very much broader and deeper.
Suez is 108 feet wide and 31 feet deep as _minima_; Kiel, 72 feet and
29-1/2 feet. The Manchester Ship Canal is 120 feet by 26 feet. In length
Panama, with its 50 miles, comes third, Suez being 90, Kiel 61, and
Manchester 35-1/2 miles long.
During the building of the canal the department of construction and
engineering was arranged in three divisions--the Atlantic, embracing the
engineering construction from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to include
the Gatun locks and dam; the central division, extending from Gatun to
Pedro Miguel; and the Pacific division, from Pedro Miguel to deep water
in the Pacific Ocean. For the ordinary student, however, the channel
divides naturally into four sections, the Atlantic level, the lake, the
cutting, and the Pacific section (in two levels separated by locks).
The invisible channel of the waterway begins at the mouth of Limon Bay,
about eight miles from Gatun locks. Limon, also known as Colon or Navy
Bay, is about three miles wide and three and a half miles long from
north to south. It is shallow, from three to seven fathoms deep, and
seems to be steadily growing shallower. This is not surprising, as it is
fully exposed to the "northers," which blow with terrific force from the
Caribbean, and no doubt carry into the bay a good deal of detritus from
the bottom of the sea. The heavy rains of the isthmus must also scour
the land perpetually down into the bay. On the east side of the bay is
the flat Manzanillo Island, a mile long by three-quarters broad, on
which stands the city of Colon. This town, which was once known as
Aspinwall, owes its existence to the Panama Railway, of which it is the
northern or Caribbean terminus. Its position on the railway gave it an
advantage over the old town of Chagres, a little distance along the
coast to the west, which, though once a flourishing port, has now fallen
on evil days. Near Colon is Cristobal, the new Atlantic terminal of the
canal.
[Illustration: Gatun Upper Lock, looking North from Lighthouse.]
Without some protection the entrance to the canal would have been
exposed to the extremely violent storms which occur in the Caribbean
during the winter months. During these storms vessels cannot lie safely
in Colon harbour, and could not safely enter or issue from the canal.
So a breakwater two miles long has been run out from Toro point in an
easterly direction, covering the extremity of the canal. A glance at the
map will suggest a thought that this barrier will not provide sufficient
protection, and that another breakwater will have to be run out from the
eastern shore. Such a further protection will be provided if the need
should arise.
At this point then, west of Colon and at the mouth of Limon Bay, our
vessel enters the buoyed submarine channel of the canal and speeds
onwards along the first section of the waterway, 500 feet in
bottom-width and 41 feet deep, towards the locks at Gatun. But the locks
are not yet visible. It is not until the fifth mile--that is, at
Mindi--that a bend of the canal opens that gigantic structure to view,
and by that time the vessel has left the broad waters and is enclosed
within banks. The experience which awaits the traveller who has looked
forward with some excitement to see the world's greatest wonder of
to-day has been vividly imagined by Mr. Bryce. Our late American
Ambassador writes:--
The voyager of the future, in the ten or twelve hours of his
passage from ocean to ocean, will have much variety. The
level light of the fiery tropic dawn will fall on the houses
of Colon as he approaches it in the morning, when vessels
usually arrive. When his ship has mounted the majestic
staircase of the three Gatun locks from the Atlantic level,
he will glide slowly and softly along the waters of a broad
lake which gradually narrows toward its head--a lake
enclosed by rich forests of that velvety softness one sees
in the tropics, with vistas of forest-girt islets stretching
far off to right and left among the hills; a welcome change
from the restless Caribbean Sea which he has left. Then the
mountains will close in upon him, steep slopes of grass or
brushwood rising two hundred feet above him as he passes
through the great Cut. From the level of the Miguel lock he
will look southward down the broad vale that opens on the
ocean flooded with the light of the declining sun, and see
the rocky islets rising, between which in the twilight his
course will lie out into the vast Pacific. At Suez the
passage from sea to sea is through a dreary and monotonous
waste of shifting sand and barren clay. Here one is for a
few hours in the centre of a verdant continent, floating on
smooth waters, shut off from sight of the ocean behind and
the ocean before--a short sweet present of tranquillity
between a stormy past and a stormy future.
The Gatun locks, each chamber of which is a sort of "canyon of cement,"
will almost oppress the imagination with the sense of immensity. At the
foot of the locks the vessel will surrender its own volition and entrust
itself wholly to the canal operators. It will be attached to the
electric apparatus ashore and gently towed into the lock-chambers. In
less than an hour it should have climbed the three gigantic steps and be
afloat on the surface of the lake, 85 feet above sea-level. The
traveller might fail even to notice of himself the great dam which abuts
on the locks to the west. He may be surprised to hear that the whole
being of the canal depends upon that earthwork, and that with the
Culebra Cut it absorbed the greater part of the labour and skill and
solicitude of the canal-builders. The Gatun dam has indeed been so
adopted and transfigured by Nature that it appears only a part, and not
a very conspicuous part, of the landscape. Nor would our traveller,
without previous information, guess the history of the great expanse of
water which stretches to right and left up many a distant arm or loch
and round many a picturesque island, and over which his vessel, once
more resuming its own power and control, begins to advance. The buoys
alone indicate that the channel, the true and well-wrought link between
the two oceans, still holds its course through the bed of the lake. Mr.
Bryce has pointed out what a pleasant interlude in a long ocean journey
will be afforded by this placid glide of 22 miles over the inland lake
from Gatun to Gamboa. The bottom widths through the lake are 1,000 feet
for 16 miles, 800 feet for 4 miles, and 500 feet for about 3 miles.
At Gamboa the vessel enters the eight-mile section of the Culebra Cut.
Here again, though the traveller in future days will need no reminding
of the enterprise represented by this tremendous trench driven through
the backbone of the isthmus, he will have to imagine the busy scene
during the days of construction which will then have disappeared. He
must try to reproduce what was little less than a manufacturing town at
Gorgona, just near the entrance to the Cut, where stood the machine
shops, boiler shops, smith shops, car shops, pattern shops, where
repairs of all kinds were made and machines of all sorts and sizes
constructed. He should think of that model residential town to the west
of the Cut where the chief engineer and his assistants lived, surrounded
by the quarters of the men, each dwelling protected with its fine wire
netting to exclude the mosquitoes, the whole settlement scrupulously
clean and bright with well-kept lawns and flowerbeds. All this will have
passed away with the crowds of workers who interrupted for a dozen years
the stillness of the primeval forest. Nature and silence will in a large
degree have resumed their sway, but the world will not forget the debt
it owes to that conquering industrial army which divided the land here
in order to unite the nations.
Through the cutting the bottom width of the canal is 300 feet. Having
accomplished the eight or nine mile passage through the deep gorge, the
vessel reaches the end of the high-level section at the Pedro Miguel
locks. Here she is gently lowered 30 feet down to the bosom of little
Miraflores Lake, held at 55 feet above sea-level. The length of this
subsection is about a mile and a half, and it ends at the Miraflores
locks, where the ship is lowered by two steps to the level of the
Pacific. Then follows the last stage of this eventful transit--the
eight-mile tidal section along which the vessel glides between low
swamps to her own element of deep sea-water beyond the new port of
Balboa, west of Panama, whose wharves are being constructed from the
waste material of the inland excavations. The new breakwater which runs
out from Balboa to Naos Island suggests wind and storm. But eternal calm
reigns along these shores, and the object of the breakwater is to
protect the line of the canal, not from heavy seas, but from the
silt-bearing currents from the east which set at right angles to the
channel. Constant dredging was necessary to prevent the bed of the canal
becoming filled with this sediment. The dyke has proved very effectual
for this purpose.
Such is the Panama Canal which has for so many centuries been the desire
of the nations, and which is now one of the permanent geographical
features of the globe. It is so well and truly constructed that nothing
short of an earthquake could ever seriously damage it. The question
naturally arises whether this ultimate danger needs to be seriously
considered. Panama is rather suspiciously close to a region where
geological conditions are not remarkable for stability. The earthquake
at Kingston a few years ago was as destructive a calamity as those of
Messina and San Francisco. Costa Rica, too, almost an isthmian country,
enjoys a very bad reputation for this kind of friskiness. Panama,
however, seems happily to lie outside the zone of such disturbances.
Slight earthquake shocks have been felt, probably only the reflections
of severer shocks elsewhere. But there is no record or tradition of a
really serious convulsion. There is, indeed, one visible and reassuring
evidence of the self-possession of the earth's surface in this region.
To the east of the modern city of Panama is the site of old Panama, of
which the lofty tower of the old cathedral--a pathetic and picturesque
object--is still standing. This shows that there has been no serious
earthquake here for the greater part of four centuries. Still, the
danger--great or small--does exist, and it threatens a high-level canal,
with its elaborate lock-machinery and masonry, far more than it would
have affected a canal at sea-level. No very severe convulsion might be
necessary to throw one of these locks out of gear, and the entire canal,
therefore, out of operation for a considerable time. But against such
perils there is no guarding, and every precaution having been taken
against foreseeable and preventable dangers, all else must be left to
the disposal of that Providence "which by his strength setteth fast the
mountains," "who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not
be removed for ever."
[Illustration: Gatun Upper Lock--West Chamber.]
It seems incredible that the canal should ever be in danger of injury or
destruction from the attack of any civilized Power, because all nations
are apparently interested in its preservation. What, then, is the
meaning of these slopes which are being prepared for forts and batteries
at either end of the canal? "With the two great forts at the two ends
of the canal," writes Mr. Showalter, "fitted with four 14-inch guns, six
6-inch guns, and twelve 12-inch mortars, with twelve companies of coast
artillery, one battery of field artillery, four regiments of infantry,
and one squad of cavalry, there is not likely to arise a time when these
fortifications, backed up by the American navy, will fail to command a
proper and wholesome respect from other nations." Yet if the object were
simply to maintain the neutrality of the canal, the best course would
seem to have been to leave the canal entirely unfortified, as is the
case at Suez, and trust to the moral influence of the great Powers and
their common interest in keeping the canal free and open to the world's
traffic. Obviously the idea of making the canal zone a big military camp
and arsenal is not so much to "police" the passage as a great
international waterway, but to defend it and the zone as a position of
immense strategic importance to the United States. President Hayes, in a
message to the Senate in 1880, spoke of the canal as "the great ocean
thoroughfare between our Atlantic and Pacific ports, and _virtually a
part of the coastline of the United States_." The words I have
italicized seem to show that the United States regard the new passage
rather as wholly proprietary, like those of Kiel and Corinth, than as
international in status, like the Suez Canal.
In the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty there is no specific reference to
fortification. The only allusion to the defence of the canal occurs in
the second subsection of the third clause: "The United States shall be
at liberty to maintain such military police along the canal as may be
necessary to protect it against lawlessness and disorder." The
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty is rather more specific in its provisions on
this subject, though even that instrument seems scarcely to have
contemplated an armament and garrison on the large and permanent scale
intended at the isthmus.[17]
England has, however, acquiesced in the proposed fortification. The
decision is not likely to be challenged in any other quarter. The United
States have built the canal with their own money and enterprise. They
are more closely and immediately interested in the passage than any
other Power, and so long as they fulfil their undertaking to afford
equal treatment in tolls and other respects to the commerce of all
nations, nobody is likely to protest against the presence of American
men and guns at the isthmus.
Indeed, there is some force in the plea that the complete neutralization
of the canal would be inconsistent with American control and operation.
In time of war the Americans would have had either to refrain from using
the canal for their warships (an unthinkable proposition) or to permit
their enemy or enemies to use it on equal terms. This would have meant a
rather painful experience for the American engineers, managers, workmen,
and others on the isthmus. They would have been obliged to put the
enemy's vessels through the canal, and thus commit a sort of legalized
treason against their own government by giving "aid and comfort" to the
enemy. So it comes to this--that the canal will be neutral at all times
except when the United States are themselves a belligerent. Then it will
become part and parcel of the sovereign dominions of the great American
Republic.
But the United States will have to stand all the ulterior possibilities
of this position. If they were at war the canal would be at once liable
to attack. In fact it would invite attack as a very vulnerable point in
their armour. It has been truly said that the canal zone will have all
the disadvantages, without any of the advantages, of an island. It will
be entirely dependent on imported supplies and isolated from the centre
of American power. If the American fleet lost the command of the sea
even for a short time, the enemy could land troops at any part of the
isthmus, march them against any point of the extended canal line and
inflict on the United States a wound in a very sensitive, if not a vital
region. So that instead of simply doubling the efficiency of the
existing American fleet, by enabling it to be transferred swiftly and
bodily from the western to the eastern coast, it may rather add to the
naval responsibilities of the States and compel a considerable increase
in their sea-power. To Englishmen, however, this development of the
power and resources of the United States ought to bring no feelings but
those of pleasure and satisfaction. In view of the great secular
struggle between East and West for supremacy in the Pacific, which some
people think will fill the pages of future world history, anything that
strengthens the position and prestige of Anglo-Saxondom as the main
guardian of Western ideas and principles should be welcome to all the
members of that race.
It is estimated that the fortification of the canal will cost about
$12,000,000. This added to the $375,000,000, the estimated cost of
construction, will bring the entire bill up to the round and goodly sum
of $400,000,000 or L80,000,000. This puts all other expenditure on
artificial water-channels into the shade, as the Suez Canal cost only
L19,000,000, the Manchester Ship Canal L15,000,000, and the Kiel Canal
L8,000,000. As regards this expense and the possibilities of revenue
returns, Colonel Goethals has written an interesting passage:--
Much has been said and predicted as to the commercial value
of the canal to the United States. In this connection it
must be remembered that the commercial shipping of this
country never required the canal. The trip of the _Oregon_
in 1898 settled the question of the advisability of
constructing an isthmian canal, and had the canal been built
at that time, thereby saving that trip around the Horn,
there is no question that it would have been agreed
generally that the canal, even at an expenditure of
$375,000,000, was worth while.
In whatever light the Panama Canal is viewed, it will have
paid for itself if in time of war or threatened war a
concentration of the fleet is effected without that long,
tedious, uncertain route followed by the _Oregon_.
It will practically double the efficiency of that fleet,
and, notwithstanding the fact that we are a peaceful nation,
our outlying possessions make the Panama Canal a military
necessity, and it must be so recognized. From this point of
view the debt should be charged to the account which
necessitated its construction, and whatever revenues are
derived from other sources are so much to the good. The
traffic that will utilize the canal depends upon the tolls
that will be charged, and the President has asked the
Congress for legislation which will enable the establishment
of rates.
There is another policy which, if adopted, will have a
material bearing on the revenues of the enterprise. Through
the Panama railroad a large expenditure of money has been
made for providing the present working forces with supplies
of all kinds. Though the railroad has been reimbursed for
this plant through fixed charges on sales, it should not be
abandoned, but utilized for furnishing shipping with its
needed supplies. Suitable coaling plants should be erected
for the sale of coal to vessels touching at or passing
through the canal. In addition, since oil is now used on a
number of ships plying in the Pacific, such fuel should also
be on hand for sale by the canal authorities.
The extensive machine shops now located at Gorgona must be
moved before the completion of the canal, and they should be
established in connection with a dry dock that will be
needed for commercial purposes, and utilized as a revenue
producer for the canal. This policy also needs
Congressional action.
With properly regulated tolls, and with facilities for fully
equipping, supplying, and repairing ships, the Panama route
would offer many advantages and bring to it a sufficiently
remunerative return to pay, not only the operating expenses,
but to gradually absorb the debt which the United States has
incurred by its construction.
We shall return to the question of tolls in a later chapter.
[Illustration: Pedro Miguel Locks, from Hill on East Bank.]
FOOTNOTES:
[17] See _ante_, page 71.