this system? How does it distinguish animals from plants? What are the
vegetative functions? What is the gray matter? Its use? The white matter?
Its use?
193. Describe the brain. What is its office? Its size? How does it vary?
Illustrate. Name its two divisions.
194, 195. Describe the cerebrum. The convolutions. The membranes which
bind the brain together. What can you say of the quantity of blood which
goes to the brain? What does it show? What do the convolutions indicate?
What is the use of the two halves of the brain? What theories have been
advanced concerning it? Is every injury to the brain fatal? Illustrate.
Compare the human brain with the brains of some animals.
196. What is the effect of removing the cerebrum? Describe the cerebellum.
What is the arbor vitæ? What does this part of the brain control? What are
the peculiar functions of the cerebellum? Give Dr. Bastian's remarks.
197. What is the effect of an injury to the cerebellum? Describe the
spinal cord. What is the medulla oblongata? Describe the nerves. Is each
part of the body supplied with its own nerve? Prove it.
198. What are the motory nerves? The sensory? When will motion be lost and
feeling remain, and _vice versa?_ What is meant by a transfer of
pain? Illustrate.
199. Name the three classes of nerves. What are the spinal nerves?
Describe the origin of the spinal nerve.
199-201. What are the cranial nerves? How many pairs are there? Describe
them.
201, 202. Describe the sympathetic system. What is its use? How does the
brain control all the vital processes? What is meant by the crossing of
the cords? What is the effect? What exception in the seventh pair of
cranial nerves?
203, 204. What is reflex action? Give illustrations. Give instances of the
unconscious action of the brain. [Footnote: The cerebellum has its
unconscious action in the processes of respiration and in the involuntary
movements which are made in response to the senses, as in winking,
starting back at a sound, etc. The cerebrum acts automatically in oases
familiar to all. A large part of our mental activity consists of this
unconscious brain work. There are many cases in which the mind has
obviously reasoned more clearly and more successfully in this automatic
condition, when left entirely to itself, than when we have been cudgeling
our brains, so to speak, to get the solution. Oliver Wendell Holmes has
aptly expressed this fact. "We wish," he says, "to remember something in
the course of conversation. No effort of the will can reach it; but we
say, 'Wait a minute, and it will come to me,' and we go on talking. Some
minutes later, the idea we are in search of comes all at once into the
mind, delivered like a prepaid parcel, or like a foundling in a basket,
laid at the door of consciousness. How it came there, we know not. The
mind must have been at work, groping and feeling for it in the dark; it
can not have come of itself. Yet, all the while, our consciousness, _so
far as we are conscious of our consciousness_, was busy with other
thoughts."
Some interesting personal experiences upon this point are given in an
article entitled "The Antechamber of Consciousness," by Francis Speir,
Jr., in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for March, 1888.] Can there be
feeling or motion in the lower limbs when the spinal cord is destroyed?
What does the story told by Dr. John Hunter show? Give illustrations of
the independent action of the spinal cord in animals. What are the uses of
reflex action?
205. State its value in the formation of habits. How does the brain grow?
What laws govern it? What must be the effect of constant light reading? Of
overstudy or mental labor?
206. State the relation of sleep to repair and waste. How many hours does
each person need? What kind of work requires most sleep?
206-208. What is the influence of sunlight on the body? Illustrate. Name
some of the wonders of the brain.
208-213. What four stages are there in the effect of alcohol on the
nervous system? Describe each. Does alcohol confer any permanent strength?
What is the physiological effect of alcohol on the brain? On the mental
and moral powers? What is the Delirium Tremens? Should a man be punished
for a crime he commits while drunk?
214-218. What are the principal constituents of tobacco? What are its
physiological effects? Who are most likely to escape injury? Is tobacco a
food? What is its influence upon youth? Why are cigarettes specially
injurious? What effect does tobacco have on the sensibilities? Name
illustrations of the injurious effect of tobacco on young men.
219-221. How is opium obtained? What is its physiological effect? Which
form of using it is most injurious? Can one give up the use of opium when
he pleases? How do people sometimes take opium without knowing it?
221. What is the harmful influence of chloral hydrate? Describe its
different physiological effects.
222. Compare its influence with that of alcohol. How is chloroform
obtained? Does its use require great caution? Illustrate its effects.
223, 224. What is cocaine? What is its value? Its physiological effect?
Its dangers?
331-333. What is the effect of extreme anger? Give the physiological
explanation of this deterioration. What two organs particularly suffer?
Illustrate. To what cause are many suicides referable? How can one secure
a calm and tranquil life? What is the effect of forcing the brain in
childhood?
334. Illustrate. How should a child be taught?
334, 335. Why should we not exhaust our energies to the last degree? What
warnings does Nature give us? Do stimulants supply force? What is the
effect of mental exhaustion? Which is the most common, overwork or worry?
Most dangerous? What is worry? Its effect? What other causes often induce
insanity?
336-338. State some curiosities of sleep. Some conditions necessary to
sound and healthful slumber. How may we acquire the habit of early rising?
338, 339. Give some of the results of dungeon life.
339-347. What can you say of the growth and power of poison habits?
Illustrate. How does physiological ignorance often cause intemperance?
What is the usual result of a stimulant habit? In what virtue lies the
peril of narcotics? Balance the good and the evil in their use. Illustrate
how death often results from chloroform and chloral. What common result is
worse than death? Compare the demoralization in the cases of the opium
user and the alcohol drinker. What principle of heredity attaches to the
use of opium? Give instances of deaths from tobacco, opium, etc. What can
you say of cigarette smoking? Chloral hydrate? The bromides? Absinthe?
Hasheesh?
THE SPECIAL SENSES.
229, 230. What is a sense? Name the five senses. To what organ do all the
senses minister? If the nerve leading to any organ of sense be cut, what
would be the effect? [Footnote: Each, organ is adapted to receive a
peculiar kind of impression. Hence we can not smell with, the eyes nor see
with the nose. Thus, if the nerve communicating between the brain and any
organ be destroyed, that means of knowledge is cut off.] Sometimes persons
lose feeling in a limb, but retain motion; why is this? What is the sense
of touch sometimes called? Describe the organ of touch. What are the
papillæ? Where are they most abundant? [Footnote: If we apply the points
of a compass blunted with cork to different parts of the body, we can
distinguish the two points at one twenty-fourth of an inch apart on the
tongue, one sixteenth, of an inch on the lips, one twelfth of an inch on
the tips of the fingers, and one half inch on the great toe; while, if
they are one inch on the cheek, and two inches on the back, they will
scarcely produce a separate sensation.--HUXLEY.] What are the uses of this
sense? What special knowledge do we obtain by it? Why do we always desire
to handle any curious object? Can the sense of touch always be relied
upon? Illustrate. What is the _tactus eruditus_? Tell how one sense
can take the place of another. Give illustrations of the delicacy of touch
possessed by the blind.
230-232. Describe the sense of taste. How can you see the papillæ of
taste? What causes the velvety look of the tongue? Why do salt and bitter
flavors induce vomiting? Why does an acid "pucker" the face? What
substances are tasteless? Illustrate. Has sulphur any taste? Chalk? Sand?
What is the use of this sense? Does it not also add to the pleasures of
life? Why are the acts of eating, drinking, etc., thus made sources of
happiness?
232, 233. Describe the organ of smell. State the intimate relation which
exists between the senses of smell and taste. Name some common mistakes
which occur in consequence. Must the object to be smelled touch the nose?
What is the theory of smell? How do you account for the statement made in
the note concerning musk and ambergris? What are the uses of this sense?
Are agreeable odors healthful, and disagreeable ones unhealthful?
234-236. Describe the organ of hearing. Describe the external ear. What is
the tympanum or drum of the ear? Describe the middle ear. Name the bones
of the ear. Describe their structure. Describe the internal ear. By what
other name is it known? What substances float in the liquid which fills
the labyrinth? What is their use? Describe the fibers of Corti. What do
they form? Use of this microscopic harp? Give the theory of sound. Where
is the sound, in the external object or in the mind? Can there be any
sound, then, where there is no mind? What advice is given concerning the
care of the ear? How can insects be removed? Which sense would you rather
lose, hearing or sight? Does not a blind person always excite more
sympathy than a deaf one? How does the sight assist the hearing?
[Footnote: In _hearing_, the attention is more or less characteristic.
If we wish to distinguish a distant noise, or perceive a sound, the
head inclines and turns in such a manner as to present the external
ear in the direction of the sound, at the same time the eyes are
fixed and partially closed. The movement of the lips of his interlocutor
is the usual means by which the deaf man supplies the want of hearing; the
eyes and the entire head, from its position, having a peculiar and painful
expression of attention. In looking at the portrait of La Condamine, it
was easily recognized as that of a deaf person. Even when hearing is
perfect, the eyes act sometimes as auxiliaries to it. In order to
understand an orator perfectly, it seems necessary to see him--the
gestures and the expression of the face seeming to add to the clearness of
the words. The lesson of a teacher can not be well understood if any
obstacle is interposed between him and the eyes of the listening pupil. So
that if a pupil's eyes wander, we know that he is not attentive.--
_Wonders of the Human Body_.]
236, 237. Describe the eye. Name the three coats of which it is composed.
Is it a perfect sphere? _Ans_. The cornea projects in front, and the
optic nerve at the back sticks out like a handle, while the ball itself
has its longest diameter from side to side. How is the interior divided?
Object of the crystalline lens? How is the crystalline lens kept in place?
Describe the liquids which fill the eye.
238. What is the pupil? Describe the eyelids. Why is the inner side of the
eyelid so sensitive? What is the cause of a black eye? Use of the
eyelashes? Where are the oil glands located? What is their use? Describe
the lachrymal gland. The lachrymal lake. What causes the overflow in old
age?
239. Explain the structure of the retina. Use of the rods and cones. What
is the blind spot?
240. Illustrate. What is the theory of sight? Illustrate.
241, 242. State the action of the crystalline lens. Its power of
adaptation. Do children ever need spectacles?
243. What is the cataract? How cured? What is color blindness? Illustrate.
What care should be taken of the eyes? Should one constantly lean forward
over his book or work? What special care should nearsighted children take?
By what carelessness may we impair our sight?
244. How is squinting caused? Cured? What care should be used after an
illness? Should we ever read or write at twilight? Danger of reading upon
the ears? What course should we take when objects get into the eye? How
may they be removed?
245. Are "eyestones" useful? Why should we never use eyewashes except upon
the advice of a competent physician? What rule should be observed with
regard to the direction of the light when we are at work? Name some causes
of near-sightedness. Remedies.
346. Give the account of Laura Bridgman.
347-350. Describe the anatomy of the nose. In what part of the nose is the
function of smell performed? Why do we "sniff" when our attention is
attracted by an odor? Give some experiments which illustrate the
connection between smell, taste, and touch. Why should we retain our food
in the mouth as long as possible? Of what use are gastronomic odors?
350. Why should a child's ear never be boxed? Illustrate. How can we
detect inattention from deafness in a child? What should we consider in
this respect?
351. Why should we avoid direct draughts in the ear? Explain the use of
earwax. What common habit is very injurious? Why?
352, 353. What is the office of the Eustachian tube? Illustrate.
353, 354. Describe the action of the "eye curtain." Give experiments. What
are "Purkinje's Figures"? Describe experiment.
HEALTH AND DISEASE.
251-254. State some of the benefits of health. Contrast it with sickness.
How were diseases formerly supposed to be caused? What remedies were used?
What does modern science teach us to be the nature of disease? Give some
illustrations showing how diseases may be prevented. Is it probable that
the body was intended to give out in any one of its organs? What is the
first step to be taken in the cure of a disease? What should be the object
of medicine? What is now the chief dependence of the best physicians? What
do you think concerning the common use of patent nostrums? Ought we not to
use the greatest care in the selection of our physician?
GLOSSARY.
Ab do' men (_abdo_, I conceal). The largest cavity in the body, in
which are hidden the intestines, stomach, etc.
Ab sorb' ent (_ab_, from _sorbeo_, I suck up).
Ac' e tab' u lum (_acetum_, vinegar). The socket for holding the head
of the thigh bone, shaped like an ancient vinegar vessel.
A ce' tic (_acetum_, vinegar).
Ad' i pose. Fatty.
Al bu' men (_albus_, white). A substance resembling the white of egg.
Al bu' mi nous substances contain much albumen.
Al' i men' ta ry. Pertaining to food.
Al' ka line (-lin) substances neutralize acids.
An' æs thet' ic. A substance that destroys the feeling of pain.
A or' ta. The largest artery of the body.
Ap' o plex y (pleks y). A disease marked by loss of sensation and
voluntary motion.
A' que ous (a'-kwe-us). Watery.
A rach' noid (_arachne_, a spider; _eidos_, form). A membrane
like a spider's web covering the brain.
Ar' bor vi'tæ means "the tree of life."
Ar' tery (_aer_, air; _tereo_, I contain). So named because
after death the arteries contain air only, and hence the ancients supposed
them to be air tubes leading through the body.
Ar tic' u late (_articulo_, I form a joint).
Ar tic' u la tion. A joint.
As phyx' ia (-fix-i-a). Literally, no pulse; apparent death.
As sim' i la' tion is the process of changing food into flesh, etc.
At' las. So called because, as in ancient fable the god Atlas supported
the globe on his shoulders, so in the body this bone bears the head.
Au' di to ry Nerve. The nerve of hearing.
Au' ri cle (-kl) (_auris_, ear) of the heart. So named from its
shape.
Bi' ceps. A muscle with two heads, or origins.
Bi cus' pid. Tooth with two points; also a valve of the heart.
Bron' chi (-ki). The two branches of the windpipe.
Bron' chi al Tubes. Subdivisions of bronchi.
Bur sa (a purse). Small sac containing fluid near a joint.
Ca nine' (_canis_, a dog) teeth are like dog's teeth.
Cap' il la ries (_capillus_, a hair). A system of tiny blood vessels.
Car' bon. Pure charcoal.
Car bon' ic Acid. A deadly gas given off by the lungs and by fires.
Ca rot' ids (_karos_, lethargy). Arteries of the neck, so named
because the ancients supposed them to be the seat of sleep.
Car' pus. The wrist.
Car' ti lage. Gristle.
Cell. A minute sac, usually with soft walls and fluid contents.
Cel' lu lar (_cellula_, a little cell). Full of cells.
Cer' e bel' lum. The little brain.
Cer' e brum. A Latin word meaning brain.
Cer' vi cal. Relating to the neck.
Chlo' ral (klo) Hy' drate. A drug used to induce sleep.
Cho' roid. The second coat of the eye.
Chyle (kile). A milky juice formed in digestion.
Chyme (kime). From _chumos_, juice.
Cir' cu la' tion. The course of the blood through the body.
Cil' i a (the plural of _cilium_, an eyelash). Hair-like projections
in the air passages.
Clav' i cle (klav'-i-kl). From _clavis_, a key.
Co ag' u la'tion. A clotting of blood.
Coc' cyx (a cuckoo). A bony mass below the sacrum.
Coch' le a. A Latin word meaning snail shell. See Ear
Com' pound. A substance composed of two or more elements.
Con ta' gious diseases are those caught by contact, the breath, etc.
Con' trac til' i ty (_con_, together; _traho_, I draw).
Con' vo lu' tion (_con_, together; _volvo_, I roll).
Cor' ne a (_cornu_, a horn). A transparent, horn-like window in the
eye.
Cor' pus cle (kor'-pus-l). From a Latin word meaning a little body. It is
applied to the disks of the blood.
Cra' ni al. Relating to the skull.
Crys'tal line (_crystallum_, a crystal).
Cu ta' ne ous (_cutis_, skin). Pertaining to the skin.
Cu' ti cle (ku'-ti-kl). From a Latin word meaning little skin.
Cu' tis, the true skin.
Den' tal (_dens, dentis_, a tooth).
Di' a phragm (-fram). The muscle dividing the abdomen from the chest.
Di as' to le (_diastello_, I put asunder). Dilation of the heart.
Dis' lo ca' tion. A putting out of joint.
Dor' sal (_dorsum_, the back).
Duct. A small tube.
Du o de' num (_duodeni_, twelve each).
Du' ra Ma' ter (_durus_, hard; _mater_, mother). The outer
membrane of the brain.
Dys pep' si a is a difficulty of digestion
E lim' i nate. To expel.
Ep' idem' ic. A disease affecting a great number of persons at once.
Ep' i der' mis. The cuticle.
Ep' i glot' tis (_epi_, upon; _glottis_, the tongue). The lid of
the windpipe.
Ep' i the' li um. The outer surface of mucous or serous membranes.
Eu sta' chi an (u-sta'-ki-an) Tube. So named from its discoverer, an
Italian physician.
Ex cre' tion. Waste particles thrown off by the excretory organs.
Fer' men ta' tion. The process by which sugar is turned into alcohol.
Fi' brin (_fibra_, a fiber).
Fil' a ment (_filum_, a thread).
Func' tion. See Organ.
Gan' gli on (gang'-gli-on). From _ganglion_, a knot; plu. ganglia.
Gas' tric (_gaster_, stomach).
Glands (_glandz_). From _glans_, a Latin word meaning acorn.
Their object, is to secrete in their cells some liquid from the blood.
Glot' tis. The opening at the top of the larynx.
Hu' me rus. The arm bone.
Hu' mor. A Latin word meaning moisture.
Hy' dro gen. The lightest gas known, and one of the elements of water.
Hy' gi ene. From a Greek word meaning health.
Hyp' o glos' sal. Literally "under the tongue"; a nerve of the tongue.
In ci' sor (_incido_, I cut) teeth are cutting teeth.
In' spi ra' tion (_in_ and _spiro_, I breathe in).
In tes' tine (-tin). From _intus_, within.
Lach' ry mal (_lachryma_, a tear). Pertaining to tears.
Lac' te al (_lac_, _lactis_, milk). So called from the milky
look of the chyle during digestion.
La cu' na, plu. lacunæ (_lakos_, a hole). Cavities in the bone
structure.
Lar' ynx (lar'-inx). The upper part of the windpipe.
Lig' a ments (_ligo_, I bind) tie bones together.
Lu' bri cate. To oil in order to prevent friction.
Lum' bar (_lumbus_, a loin). Pertaining to the loins.
Lymph (limf). From _lympha_, pure water.
Lym phat' ic (lim-fat-ik).
Mas' ti ca' tion. The act of chewing.
Me dul' la Ob lon ga' ta. The upper part of the spinal cord.
Mam' brane. A thin skin, or tissue.
Mes' en tery. The membrane by which the intestines are fastened to the
spine.
Met' a car' pal (_meta_, after; _karpos_, wrist).
Met' a tar' sal (_meta_, after; _tarsos_, the instep).
Mi' cro scope (_mikros_, small; _skopeo_, I see).
Mo'lar (_mola_, a mill) teeth are the grinders.
Morp' hine (_Morpheus_, the Greek god of sleep).
Mo' tor. Giving motion.
Mu' cous (-kus) Membrane. A thin tissue, or skin, covering the open
cavities of the body. See Serous.
Mu' cous. A fluid secreted by a membrane and serving to lubricate it.
Mus' cle (mus-l). A bundle of fibers covered by a membrane.
My o' pi a (_muo_, I contract; _ops_, the eye).
Nar cot' ic. A drug producing sleep.
Na' sal (na'-zal). From _nasus_, the nose.
Nerve (neuron, a cord).
Ni' tro gen Gas is the passive element of the air.
Ni trog' e nous. Containing nitrogen.
Nu tri' tion. The process by which the body is nourished.
soph' agus (e-sof'-a-gus). The gullet; literally, a "food-carrier."
Ol fac' to ry. Pertaining to the smell.
Or' gan. An organ is a portion of the body designed for a particular use,
which is called its _function_; thus the heart circulates the blood.
Os' se ous. Bone-like.
Os' si fy (_ossa_, bones; _facio_, I make).
Ox i da' tion. The process of combining with oxygen.
Ox' y gen. The active element of the air.
Pal' ate (_palatum_, the palate). Roof of the mouth.
Pan' cre as (_pas_, all; _kreas_, flesh). An organ of digestion.
Pa pil' la, plu. papillæ. Tiny cone-like projections.
Pa ral' y sis. A disease in which one loses sensation, or the power of
motion, or both.
Pa rot' id (_para_, near; _ous_, _otos_, ear). One of the
salivary glands.
Pa tel' la (a little dish). The kneepan.
Pec' to ral. Pertaining to the chest.
Pep' sin (_pepto_, I digest). The chief constituent of the gastric
juice.
Per' i car' di um (_peri_, around; _kardia_, the heart). The
membrane wrapping the heart.
Per' i os' te um (_peri_, around; _osteon_, bone). The membrane
around the bone.
Per' i stal' tic (_peri_, round; _stallein_, to arrange).
Applied to the worm-like movement of the alimentary canal.
Phar' ynx (far'-inx). From _pharugx_, the throat.
Pi' a Ma' ter (tender mother). See Brain.
Pig' ment. A paint.
Plas' ma (plaz'-ma). The nutritious fluid of the blood.
Pleu' ra (plu'-ra). From _pleuar_, a rib. The membrane that lines the
chest and wraps the lungs.
Pres by o' pi a (_presbus_, old; _ops_, the eye). A defect in
the eye common to old age.
Proc' ess. A projection. Sometimes it retains its ordinary meaning of
"operation."
Py lo' rus (a gate). The doorway through which the food passes from the
stomach.
Pul' mo na ry (_pulmo_, the lungs). Pertaining to the lungs.
Ra' di us. A Latin word meaning the spoke of a wheel, a ray, etc.
Ram' i fy. To spread like the branches of a tree.
Res' pi ra´ tion (_re_, again; _spiro_, I breathe). Act of
breathing.
Ret' i na (_rete_, a net). The expansion of the optic nerve in the
eye.
Sa' crum (sacred). So named, it is said, because this bone of the pelvis
was anciently offered in sacrifice.
Sa li' va. A Latin word meaning spittle; the fluid secreted by the
salivary glands.
Scap' u la. The shoulder blade.
Scav' en ger. A street sweeper.
Sele rot' ic (skie-rot'-ic). The outer coat of the eye.
Se cre' tion (_secretum_, to separate).
Sed' en ta ry persons are those who sit much.
Sen' so ry Nerves. The nerves of feeling.
Se' rous Membrane. A thin tissue, or skin, covering the cavities of the
body that are not open to the external air.
Se' rum. The thin part of the blood.
Sub cla' vi an. Located under the clavicle.
Sub lin' gual (_sub_, under: _lingua_, the tongue). The salivary
gland located under the tongue.
Sub max' il la ry (_sub_, under; _maxilla_, jawbone). The
salivary gland located under the jaw.
Syn o' vi a (_sun_, with; _oon_, egg). A fluid that lubricates
the joints.
Syn o' vi al Membrane packs the joints.
Sys' to le (_sustello_, I contract). Contraction of the heart.
Tem' po ral. An artery on the temple (_tempus_, time), so called
because, as is said, the hair whitens first at that point.
Ten' dons (_tendo_, I stretch). The cords conveying motion from the
muscle to the bone.
Tho' rax (a breastplate). The cavity containing the lungs, etc.
Tib' ia. The shin-bone.
Tis' sue. A general term applied to the textures of which the different
organs are composed; osseous tissue forms bones.
Tra' che a (tra'-ke-a). Means rough, alluding to the roughened surface of
the windpipe.
Tri' ceps. A muscle with three heads, or origins.