Transcriber’s Note
Italic text displayed as: _italic_
Issued February 26, 1912.
1434 Reprinted with slight changes, June, 1916.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FARMERS’ BULLETIN 487.
CHEESE AND ITS ECONOMICAL
USES IN THE DIET.
BY
C. F. LANGWORTHY, PH. D.,
_Chief of Office of Home Economics, States Relations Service_,
AND
CAROLINE L. HUNT, A. B.,
_Expert in Nutrition, Office of Home Economics_.
[Illustration: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1916.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
STATES RELATIONS SERVICE,
_Washington, D. C., June 10, 1916_.
SIR: Since cheese is one of the important agricultural products
of the United States and a foodstuff used in a larger or smaller
quantity in nearly every American home, it seemed desirable to study
its relative nutritive value and the ways in which it may be prepared
for the table.
Although it is so generally liked, there seems to be a widespread
belief that it is not well digested and that it is a cause of
physiological disturbances. Neither of these beliefs is substantiated
by the results of the extended series of digestion experiments
undertaken as part of the nutrition investigations of the Office
of Home Economics. Indeed, cheese was found to be very thoroughly
digested, ranking with other staple foods in this respect. Moreover,
experiments made with the respiration calorimeter did not indicate
that it was less easy of digestion than a comparable amount of meat.
In the studies of the digestibility of cheese the Bureau of Animal
Industry cooperated with the States Relations Service and was also of
great assistance in securing, for experimental purposes, cheese made
and cured under controlled conditions. Supplementing the experiments
as to the nutritive value of cheese, many tests were made of methods
of preparing cheese for the table, the main purpose being to suggest
dishes and combinations of such a character that the cheese might
replace other nitrogenous material and fat when this seemed desirable.
The bulletin was prepared by C. F. Langworthy, chief of the Office of
Home Economics of the States Relations Service, and Miss Caroline L.
Hunt, who has had wide experience in the study of both scientific and
practical problems in nutrition. The recipes were collected from many
sources and in the majority of cases were studied experimentally by
Miss Hunt.
Acknowledgement should be made to teachers of home economics in
agricultural colleges and other educational institutions, to
housekeepers, and others who have supplied data of great value in
preparing the bulletin.
Respectfully, A. C. TRUE,
_Director_.
Hon. D. F. HOUSTON,
_Secretary of Agriculture_.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction 5
Cheese making 7
Kinds of cheese used in American homes 8
Cheddar and American full-cream cheese 8
English dairy cheese 9
Soft cream cheeses 9
Neufchâtel cheese 9
Parmesan cheese 10
Sap Sago 10
Gorgonzola and Roquefort 10
Potted or sandwich cheeses 10
Swiss cheese (Emmentaler, Gruyère, etc.) 10
Edam cheese 10
Brie and Camembert cheese 11
Cottage cheese 11
The care of cheese in the home 11
Cheese as a food 11
The flavor of cheese 12
Composition of cheese and some other foods compared 12
Nutritive value and cost of cheese and some other food materials 14
Amounts of protein and energy obtained for 10 cents expended for
cheese and other foods at certain assumed prices per pound 14
The digestibility of cheese 15
The use of cheese in the diet 16
Bill-of-fare making with cheese as the central food 17
Homemade cheese 19
Curds and whey 19
Cottage cheese 19
Sour-cream cheese 20
Uncooked curd, or French cottage cheese 20
Junket 20
Buttermilk cheese 20
Buttermilk cream 21
Devonshire cream 21
Cheese dishes and their preparation 21
Cheese dishes which may be used in the same way as meat 22
Cheese sauce No. 1 22
Cheese sauce No. 2 23
Cheese sauce No. 3 23
Cheese sauce No. 4 23
Cheese fondue No. 1 24
Cheese fondue No. 2 24
Boiled fondue 25
Rice fondue 25
Corn and cheese soufflé 25
Welsh rabbit 25
Tomato rabbit 26
Green corn, tomato, and cheese 26
Macaroni and cheese No. 1 26
Macaroni and cheese No. 2 26
Macaroni and cheese and tomato sauce 26
Italian macaroni and cheese 26
Cheese and macaroni loaf 27
Baked rice and cheese No. 1 27
Baked rice and cheese No. 2 27
Baked crackers and cheese No. 1 27
Baked crackers and cheese No. 2 28
Cheese rolls 28
Boston roast 28
Pimiento and cheese roast 28
Nut and cheese roast 28
Cheese and spinach roll 28
Vegetable and cheese rolls 29
Cheese used in the stuffing of meat 29
Creamed cheese and eggs 29
Baked eggs with cheese 29
Scrambled eggs with cheese 29
Swiss eggs 29
Cheese omelet No. 1 30
Cheese omelet No. 2 30
Cheese omelet No. 3 30
Breakfast cereals with cheese 30
Oatmeal with cheese 30
Cheese with mush 31
Fried bread with cheese No. 1 31
Fried bread with cheese No. 2 31
Roman gnocchi 31
Cheese soufflé 31
Cheese soufflé with pastry 31
Cheese croquettes 32
Fried cheese balls 32
Cheese soups and vegetables cooked with cheese 32
Milk and cheese soup 32
Cheese and vegetable soup 32
Scalloped potatoes with cheese No. 1 33
Scalloped potatoes with cheese No. 2 33
Scalloped cabbage or cauliflower with cheese 33
Cheese with potato puffs 33
Potatoes with cheese sauce 33
Cheese salads, sandwiches, and similar cheese dishes 33
Cheese with salads 33
Plain cheese salad 34
Olive and pimiento sandwich or salad cheese 34
Cheese and tomato salad 34
Cheese and pimiento salad 34
Cheese jelly salad 34
Cheese salad and preserves 34
Deviled eggs with cheese 34
Cheese and celery 35
Buttermilk cream salad dressing 35
Buttermilk cream horseradish salad dressing 35
Cheese sandwiches 35
Cheese and anchovy sandwiches 35
Pimiento, olive and cheese sandwiches 35
Cuban sandwiches 35
Toasted cheese sandwiches 35
Cheese pastry, cheese sweets, and similar dishes 35
Cheese pastries and similar dishes 36
Cheese biscuits No. 1 36
Cheese biscuits No. 2 36
Cheese drops 36
Cheese wafers 37
Cheese relish 37
Cheese straws 37
Salad biscuit 37
Cheese gingerbread No. 1 37
Cheese gingerbread No. 2 37
Cheese custard 37
Cheese cakes 37
Brown Betty with cheese 38
Conclusion 38
CHEESE AND ITS ECONOMICAL USES IN THE DIET.
INTRODUCTION.
Cheese is believed to be the oldest of the dairy products and the
first form in which milk was preserved for future use. One may
conjecture that it owes its origin to the accidental storing and
ripening of sour milk curd. Although it has been a staple food with
many races for uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that
it is suitable for use chiefly in small quantities as an accessory
to the diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to produce
physiological disturbances. We are inclined, therefore, to think of
those who make cheese one of the chief articles of their diet as
being driven to this course by necessity rather than being led to it
by choice.
Because of these opinions extensive studies have been carried
on as a part of the Department Work in Home Economics, of the
food value, thoroughness of digestibility, ease of digestion,
physiological effect, and special character of cheese as food as
well as of methods which are followed in preparing it for the
table. The conclusion drawn from this extended study is, in brief,
that cheese properly prepared and used is not generally a cause of
physiological disturbances, and that it may easily be introduced
into the bill of fare in such quantities as to serve as the chief
source of nitrogenous food and may be made a substitute for other
nitrogenous foods when such substitution is desired.[1] The results
of these studies have been brought together in this bulletin with a
view to making them helpful to all interested in the subject, but
particularly to housekeepers.
From the standpoint of the housekeeper, cheese is of importance
because of its high nutritive value, particularly its high percentage
of protein or muscle-forming materials, because of the ease with
which it can be kept and prepared for the table, and because of its
appetizing flavor and of the great variety of ways in which it can be
served.
From the point of view of agriculture cheese is an important
commodity. The latest census figures available show that considerably
over 300,000,000 pounds are made yearly in the United States, the
value of the product being nearly $29,000,000, and the amount of
money invested being over $6,000,000. The figures quoted are from
the census report which first separated the details of the cheese
industry from those of the butter and condensed-milk industries.
From earlier statistics available, however, it is fair to judge in a
general way of the development of any one of these industries from
the figures given for the three industries combined. In general,
these figures show that there was a great leap forward in the three
industries in the decade between the years 1880 and 1890, and that
since that time there has been a continuous, steady, healthy growth
in the business of cheese making.
As might be expected, the amount of the product and the amount of
money invested have increased more rapidly than the number of men
employed, indicating that, as in most manufacturing industries,
labor-saving devices and other improvements have reduced the
proportion of physical labor required.
As regards the kind of cheese made in the United States, the figures
show that of the amount produced in 1905 approximately three-fourths
was what is known to the trade as standard factory cheese, or what
is usually known to the retail purchaser as American cheese. A very
small per cent—1.1 per cent—was skim-milk cheese, the remainder
being American modifications of certain important foreign brands,
Neufchâtel, Camembert, and others.
From the standpoint of the retail dealer, cheese is important because
it is a convenient article to handle. Its percentage of nutrients
being high and its percentage of water low, it is not bulky. It
is comparatively easy, too, to preserve in good condition. The
difficulty of cutting exact amounts called for by customers may
be considered the chief inconvenience. Efforts have been made to
obviate this difficulty by making small cheeses. Experiments have
been reported from the Oregon Experiment Station[2] on the canning of
cheese in pound lots; and from the Wisconsin Experiment Station[3]
in making cheese prints like those in which butter is commonly sold.
In some of the factories cheeses weighing about 5 pounds and having
the same shape as the larger cheeses are made. These are convenient
for use in families where a large amount of cheese is eaten, and
furthermore cheese in such form dries out and spoils less quickly and
easily than cheese cut in wedge-shaped slices, as it usually is when
sold by the pound. A convenient way of keeping and using such cheese
is given on page 11.
The sale of cheese in pots is another way of overcoming the
difficulty of cutting exact amounts. Cheese thus prepared is, as a
rule, softened by the addition of butter fat or other fat, with the
idea of making it of such consistency that it can be used like soft
cheeses.
There is something to be said also of the value of cheese to that not
inconsiderable number of individuals who must occasionally cater for
themselves—those men and women in business life, for example, who
find it convenient neither to carry lunches nor to go to restaurants.
For these, cheese offers a convenient way of supplying the necessary
protein, for it can usually be obtained in good condition in any
neighborhood. Combined with crackers, some of the ready-cooked
cereals, or bread, and with fruit, it makes a fairly well-balanced
meal.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1910, p. 359.
[2] Oregon Sta. Bul. 78.
[3] Wisconsin Sta. Rpt. 1901, p. 132; U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul.
156.
CHEESE MAKING.
Though the chief points in the manufacture of cheese are well
known, and are discussed in detail in other publications[4] of this
department, it may not be out of place to review them here. Cheese is
made ordinarily from whole milk, and most of the kinds best known in
the United States from cows’ milk. In every 8 parts of milk by weight
there is approximately 1 part of solid nutrients, the remainder being
water. For our present purpose we may think of the nutrients as being
equally divided into three groups—protein substances (casein and
albumin principally), fat, and milk sugar. In the process of cheese
making the casein, which constitutes more than three-fourths of the
proteids of the milk, is precipitated by rennet, forming a curd. Most
of the fat attaches itself to this curd. The curd is broken up, and
the whole is heated to a temperature between 96° and 108° F. The whey
is drained off and carries with it most of the milk sugar and the
albumin. The curd is salted and pressed. It is kept for several weeks
or longer in a cool place, where it “ripens,” developing flavors
through the action of bacteria or other microorganisms, and also
undergoing certain other marked changes.
The average cheese while fresh and moist contains proteids and fat
in much the same ratio as that in which they are found in the milk.
More than one-fourth its weight is proteid, about one-third fats, and
one-third water. There are always present small amounts of albumin
and sugar which have clung to the curd. Owing to the addition of
salt, the percentage of mineral matter is high compared with that of
most other foods.
In ripening, cheese changes in texture and its original pastiness
gives away to a somewhat granular consistency in some types, or to a
waxy or a buttery consistency in others.
The above brief outline refers only to the essentials of cheese
making. In practice, there are many variations with respect to the
kind of milk used, the proportion of butter fat or cream retained
in or added to the milk, with respect to the methods followed in
separating, preparing, seasoning, and handling the curd, and to
the handling and ripening of the cheese. It follows that there is
an almost endless number of cheeses with different names and of
different appearance and flavor.
Cheese making was formerly a home or farm industry, but is now, in
the United States at least, very largely a commercial enterprise
carried on in factories. It differs from many industries in that the
factories are almost always located in the country or in the smaller
towns rather than in large cities, this being more true of cheese
making than of the manufacture of potted cheeses or other special
articles, which has become a large industry. It is worthy of mention
in this connection that the making of cheese crackers and other
bakers’ goods in which cheese is an ingredient has developed into an
important part of the baking trade.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Buls. 166, 225, 244; Bur. Anim. Indus.
Buls. 105, 146.
KINDS OF CHEESE USED IN AMERICAN HOMES.
The American factory cheese—the so-called American cream cheese—is
of the English Cheddar type, and as it is the most commonly used
of all the commercial varieties in the United States, may be taken
as a standard. Other types are, however, well known, particularly
in cities and large towns where there are well-stocked markets and
stores, and it is interesting to note also, at least briefly, the
characteristics of some of them. Full descriptions of a very large
number of cheeses (about 250 in all) may be found in an earlier
bulletin of this department.[5]
CHEDDAR AND AMERICAN FULL-CREAM CHEESE.
Cheddar cheese—named from the English village where it originated—is
a comparatively old type of cheese, very popular in England and also
in the United States. The name is now more fitly applied to a process
than to any particular shape.
Cheddar cheese is made from sweet cows’ milk, which may be skimmed,
partly skimmed, or unskimmed. If made from unskimmed milk the cheese
is called “full cream.” If cream is removed the cheese is designated
“part-skim” or “skim,” as the case may be.
Cheese of Cheddar type as made in the United States is perhaps most
often marketed in large, flat, round forms, 13 to 16 inches in
diameter, about 5 or 6 inches in height, and weighing 26 to 32 pounds
each, though other shapes and sizes are also fairly common. It is
usually pale to darker yellow in color, though it may be white when
uncolored. When fresh it is mild in flavor, but when well ripened
has a characteristic and sharp taste. The new cheese is soft, though
not waxy, in texture, and may be easily shaved or broken into small
pieces. When well ripened it may be finely grated.
These characteristics, together with its distinctive and peculiar
flavor and its wide distribution in the markets, are qualities which
help to make it the variety most commonly used in the United States.
Sage cheese is a variety of Cheddar cheese, which is flavored with
sage and is further characterized by the green mottled appearance
formerly due to bits of sage leaf but now generally obtained in
another way.
ENGLISH DAIRY CHEESE.
From the standpoint of the cook who frequently wishes to use grated
cheese this variety is important. Though made in much the same way as
Cheddar, it differs from it, in that the curd is heated to a somewhat
higher temperature, and the cheese is therefore harder. It commonly
sells for somewhat more per pound than the standard or American
factory variety and is likely to be found only in the larger markets.
SOFT CREAM CHEESES.
Cream cheese true to name is made from rich cream thickened by
souring or from sweet cream thickened with rennet. The whey is
removed by draining. It is then covered, salted, and turned
occasionally, being ready for market in 5 to 10 days. A variety is
also made with rennet from cream of low fat content, as well as a
number of other special sorts much more common in France than in the
United States.
The term “cream cheese,” however, is an elastic one and includes many
varieties which are sold under special trade names. Such cheese is
common in most markets.
Soft cream cheese differs from standard cheese, so far as composition
is concerned, in having more water and fat and less protein, water
usually making up about one-half of the total weight. It differs also
in being much more perishable. These cheeses commonly sell for 10 or
15 cents each, which is about 40 to 50 cents a pound.
Of late there have been on the market varieties of such cheese or of
Neufchâtel, made by combining the cheese with chopped pimiento. These
bring a relatively high price in market and may be easily prepared at
home if this seems more convenient. (See p. 34.)
NEUFCHÂTEL CHEESE.
This very popular variety—named from a town in northeastern France—is
similar in appearance and in the way it is marketed to soft cream
cheese. It is made either from whole or skim milk curdled with
rennet. After draining and pressing, it is kneaded thoroughly, formed
into small rolls or blocks, and then ripened until special molds
develop, which requires about four weeks. It is then wrapped in
tinfoil and marketed.
PARMESAN CHEESE.
This is a name given outside of Italy to a very hard cheese which in
that country is said to be known as Grana, a name given because of
the granular appearance which it has after it has been broken. It is
sometimes sold in grated form and brings a relatively high price, but
is more commonly sold ungrated. When well made it will keep for years
and may be easily broken and grated. It is very generally used in
Europe for serving with soups, for seasoning macaroni, and for other
similar purposes, and is quite common in American markets.
SAP SAGO.
This is a skim-milk cheese made in Switzerland, which is suitable
for grating. It contains, for every 4 pounds of cheese, 1 pound of a
clover (_Melilotus cæruleus_) grown in Switzerland. It is greenish in
color and has an unusual flavor. It is not high-priced.
GORGONZOLA AND ROQUEFORT.
These are highly flavored cheeses characterized by the presence of
molds through their entire mass. Roquefort is made from the milk of
sheep; Gorgonzola, from cows’ milk.
POTTED OR SANDWICH CHEESES.
Ordinary cheese is often mixed with butter or oil in the proportion
of 5 parts of cheese to 1 of butter or oil, by weight. The mixture is
sometimes seasoned with mustard or with curry powder. Such cheeses,
unseasoned or seasoned, are on the market in great variety. Potted
cheese may be easily prepared at home if the housekeeper wishes to
take the trouble.
SWISS CHEESE (EMMENTALER, GRUYÈRE, ETC.).
This term as used in America is somewhat vague. Different names are
given to the varieties according to the districts of Switzerland in
which they are made, but they are all similar and characterized by
a mild, sweetish flavor and the presence of large holes or “eyes.”
Foreign and domestic brands are to be found in most markets. They
are suitable for cooking purposes, as well as for use without being
cooked, and are much used in this way in Europe and well known and
liked in the United States.
EDAM CHEESE.
This is a cheese made in Holland. It is molded in spherical form, and
the outside is usually dyed red. It is usual in this country to cut
off a section of the top, which serves as a lid, and to scoop out
the inside as needed. In Holland it is frequently served in slices,
particularly when it is fresh. Edam cheese is seldom used in cookery
in American homes, though thrifty housewives, after the greater part
of the cheese has been removed, often stuff the hollow shell with
cooked and seasoned macaroni, rice, or something similar and bake.
BRIE AND CAMEMBERT CHEESE.
These are very soft rennet cheeses of foreign origin and of somewhat
smaller nutritive value than standard cheese, and of strong flavor
and odor. They are not often used in cookery, but are used as an
accompaniment to other foods. The Bureau of Animal Industry and
the Connecticut Storrs Experiment Station in cooperation have
experimented with the making of Camembert cheese with marked success,
and have published a full account of the work.[6]
COTTAGE CHEESE.
Cottage cheese and other sour milk and cream cheeses, junket,
Devonshire cream, and a number of other cheese-like products are
described in the section which deals with homemade cheese.
FOOTNOTES:
[5] U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus. Bul. 146.
[6] U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus. Buls. 71, 98, 109, 115, 120,
Circ. 145; Conn. Storrs Sta. Buls. 35, 46, and 58.
THE CARE OF CHEESE IN THE HOME.
One of the best ways of keeping cheese which has been cut is to wrap
it in a slightly damp cloth and then in paper, and to keep it in a
cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it and then wring it. It
should seem hardly damp to the touch. Paraffin paper may be used in
place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered dish, the air
should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it molds more
readily.
In some markets it is possible to buy the small whole cheeses
mentioned on page 6. These may be satisfactorily kept by cutting a
slice from the top, to serve as a cover, and removing the cheese
as needed with a knife, a strong spoon, or a cheese scoop. It is
possible to buy at the hardware stores knobs which inserted in the
layer cut from the top make it easy to handle. The cheese below the
cover should be kept wrapped in a cloth.
CHEESE AS A FOOD.
Cheese is used in general in two ways—in small quantities chiefly for
its flavor and in large quantities for its nutritive value as well
as for its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the
first purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used
chiefly for their flavor, many of which are high priced, contribute
little to the food value of the diet, because of the small quantity
used at a time. They have an important part to play, however, in
making the diet attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper
thinks of them not as necessities, but as lying within what has been
called “the region of choice.” Having first satisfied herself that
her family is receiving sufficient nourishment, she then, according
to her means and ideas of an attractive diet, chooses among these
foods and others which are to be considered luxuries.
Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in
large quantities and which are comparatively low priced are important
not only from the point of view of flavor, but also from the point of
view of their nutritive value. Among such cheeses the one which, as
noted above, is known to the trade as standard factory cheese and to
the housewife as American cheese stands out pre-eminently. Therefore
when the word “cheese” is used without specification in the following
pages it may be taken to refer to this particular variety.
THE FLAVOR OF CHEESE.
Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and their compounds which
it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed during ripening from
the cleavage of the casein, to salt added to the curd, and in some
varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies elaborated by molds which
develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of the fatty
acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are also the
ammonia-like bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert a
trace of ammonia flavor may often be plainly detected.
The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other
changes are brought about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally
present in cheese or by microorganisms and are to be regarded as
fermentative and not as putrefactive changes.
The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of
individual preference, but from the chemist’s standpoint there is no
reason for the statement often made that such cheeses have undergone
putrefactive decomposition.
COMPOSITION OF CHEESE AND SOME OTHER FOODS COMPARED.
In the present state of our knowledge concerning dietetics it seems
best to give the housekeeper general rather than absolute rules with
respect to the kind and amount of food which should be eaten at any
meal or at any given time by persons in normal health living under
usual conditions. It is not necessary, therefore, for the housekeeper
to know the exact composition of food materials in order to cater
well for her family, a rough approximation being sufficient for
the purpose. In the case of cheese she will be near enough to the
fact if she thinks of it as composed approximately of equal parts
by weight of proteids, fats, and water. This rough conception is
sufficient to associate it in her mind with the foods of high proteid
value, a point which is important in connection with the making of
bills of fare. It should lead her to class it also with the foods
which are rich in fat and prevent her from combining it unnecessarily
with other fatty foods.
In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the
diet may be adequately discussed, knowledge of its composition in
comparison with other foods is desirable, and there is an abundance
of data available on this subject, since the composition of cheese
and other foods has often been investigated at the Department of
Agriculture, in experiment station laboratories, and in many other
places where nutrition problems are studied. An extended summary
of analyses of cheese of different sorts is included in an earlier
publication of this department.[7]
Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods
are summarized in the following table:
_Average composition of cheese and some other common foods as
purchased, and also on the basis of edible portion._
----------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------
| | | |
Food materials. | Refuse. | Water. | Protein. | Fat.
| | | |
----------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------
|_Per |_Per |_Per |_Per
| cent._ | cent._ | cent._ | cent._
Cheese | | 34.2 | 25.2 | 33.7
Beef of average | | | |
composition as | | | |
purchased | 18.6 | 50.5 | 15.2 | 15.5
Edible portion | | 62.2 | 18.8 | 18.8
Porterhouse steak | | | |
as purchased | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9
Edible portion | | 60.0 | 21.9 | 20.4
Loin steak, broiled, | | | |
edible portion | | 54.8 | 23.5 | 20.4
Dried beef | | 53.7 | 26.4 | 6.9
Eggs as purchased | 11.2 | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3
Edible portion | | 73.7 | 13.4 | 10.5
Milk | | 87.0 | 3.3 | 4.0
Bread | | 35.3 | 9.2 | 1.3
Potatoes as purchased | 20.0 | 62.6 | 1.8 | .1
Edible portion | | 78.3 | 2.2 | .1
Apples as purchased | 25.0 | 63.6 | .3 | .3
Edible portion | | 84.6 | .4 | .5
----------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------
----------------------+--------------+------------+-----------
| | | Fuel
Food materials. |Carbohydrates.| Ash. | value per
| | | pound.
----------------------+--------------+------------+-----------
|_Per cent._ |_Per cent._ |_Calories._
Cheese | 2.4 | 3.8 | 1,950
Beef of average | | |
composition as | | |
purchased | | .7 | 935
Edible portion | | .9 | 1,145
Porterhouse steak | | |
as purchased | | .8 | 1,110
Edible portion | | 1.0 | 1,270
Loin steak, broiled, | | |
edible portion | | 1.2 | 1,300
Dried beef | | 8.9 | 790
Eggs as purchased | | .9 | 635
Edible portion | | 1.0 | 720
Milk | 5.0 | .7 | 310
Bread | 53.1 | 1.1 | 1,215
Potatoes as purchased | 14.7 | .8 | 295
Edible portion | 18.4 | 1.0 | 385
Apples as purchased | 10.8 | .3 | 190
Edible portion | 14.2 | .3 | 290
----------------------+--------------+------------+-----------
It will be seen from the above table that cheese has nearly twice
as much protein, weight for weight, as beef of average composition
as purchased and that its fuel value is more than twice as great.
It contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight of
porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat.
As shown by the figures in the above table, cheese contains 3.8
per cent ash. Of this a considerable part may be salt added in
cheese making. Like the milk from which it is made, cheese ash is
characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium,
phosphorus, and iron, the average values as given in earlier
bulletins of the department[8] being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid,
0.049 per cent magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent phosphorus pentoxid, and
0.0015 per cent iron.
The total amount of the mineral matter needed per day by the body
is relatively small, yet mineral matter is very important. It is
commonly assumed and is probably true, that a mixed diet reasonably
varied and reasonably generous will supply all the ash constituent
which the body requires. If for any reason calcium and phosphorus are
lacking in the diet, the amounts may be readily increased (as pointed
out in one of the publications just cited) by a free use of milk
and such milk products as cheese and junket, without decreasing the
palatability of the diet or materially increasing its cost.
FOOTNOTES:
[7] U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus. Bul. 146.
[8] U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Buls. 185 and 227.
NUTRITIVE VALUE AND COST OF CHEESE AND SOME OTHER FOOD MATERIALS.
Since the market prices of foods vary, it is difficult to compare
the amounts of nourishment secured for a given sum, 10 cents say,
in buying different food materials. We may, however, suppose that
foods have certain prices and make the comparison on this basis. In
the following table the amount of cheese obtained for 10 cents when
cheese costs 22 cents a pound is shown, together with the protein and
energy value of this quantity, this value being compared with similar
values for a number of other common foods at certain assumed prices
per pound.
_Amounts of protein and energy obtained for 10 cents expended for
cheese and other foods at certain assumed prices per pound._
--------------+---------------------+----------+----------------------
| | | 10 cents’ worth will
| | 10 cents | contain—
Food | Price. | will |----------------------
materials. | | buy— | | A fuel
| | | Proteid. | value of—
--------------+---------------------+----------+----------+-----------
| |_Ounces._ |_Ounces._ |_Calories._
Cheese | 22 cents per pound | 7.3 | 1.9 | 886
Beef, average | 20 cents per pound | 8.0 | 1.2 | 467
Porterhouse | | | |
steak | 25 cents per pound | 6.4 | 1.3 | 444
Dried beef | do | 6.4 | 1.6 | 315
Eggs | 24 cents per dozen | 10.0 | 1.3 | 198
Milk | 9 cents per quart | 38.3 | 1.2 | 736
Wheat bread | 5 cents per pound | 32.0 | 2.9 | 2,400
Potatoes | 60 cents per bushel | 160.0 | | 2,950
Apples | 1½ cents per pound | 106.7 | | 1,270
--------------+---------------------+----------+----------+-----------
Since cheese is ready to be eaten when it comes from the market, it
may be more interesting for some purposes to compare its composition
with that of cooked beef, freed from bone and from superfluous fat,
such a piece as would be served to a person at the table. Weight for
weight, cheese has appreciably more protein than such cooked beef,
and 50 per cent more fat.
So far as its composition is concerned, then, cheese is entitled to
be considered as directly comparable with meat. The possibilities
of using cheese and some other food materials in the same way as
meat is discussed in some detail in an earlier publication of this
department.[9] It is so used by the peasants of some parts of Europe,
and was formerly so used among many other groups of people. The fact
that it is not more commonly so used in this country is probably due
to several causes. One cause is habit, which makes the meal seem
incomplete unless it includes meat; another is the fact that since
cheese has a more pronounced flavor than meat, it is not so likely to
be generally acceptable as the chief food of a meal. There is always
likely to be at least one member of the family who does not relish it
in quantity. Another cause is the fact that it is commonly believed
to be indigestible, and still another is the fact that housekeepers,
through lack of experience, are much less skillful in the arrangement
of bills of fare in which cheese is the central food than they are in
arranging bills of fare in which meat is thus used. These last two
causes will be considered in sections which follow.
FOOTNOTES:
[9] U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1907, p. 367.
THE DIGESTIBILITY OF CHEESE.
As was stated above, cheese has been thought a cause of digestive
disturbances, but work recently done by the Office of Experiment
Stations, in cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry, and
briefly summed up in a recent publication tends to disprove this.[10]
In the large number of experiments which were conducted, young men in
good health were fed on a diet consisting of bread and fruit combined
with American factory cheese which was made with different amounts
of rennet and in different stages of ripening. The results showed
that over 90 per cent of the nitrogenous material of the cheese was
digested—that is, retained in the body—and nearly 90 per cent of the
energy it supplied was available. In other words, cheese compares
favorably with other foods in thoroughness of digestion—that is,
in the percentage finally digested. Furthermore, it did not cause
constipation or other physiological disturbances.
The above statement refers to full-cream cheese. Experiments made at
the same time gave practically the same values for the digestibility
of skim-milk cheese, of Swiss cheese, of Roquefort and Camembert
cheese, and of cottage cheese.
Artificial digestion experiments made at the Minnesota Agricultural
Experiment Station[11] indicate that cheese protein is digested by
the ferments of the intestines rather than by those of the stomach,
and this is suggested as a reason for its reputation as a “hearty”
food, the belief being that some foods which remain in the stomach
longer than the average time, or are not digested by the stomach, are
“hearty.” Cheese protein (casein) is intimately associated with fat,
and there is experimental evidence to show that this condition has an
effect upon the progress of digestion in the stomach.
The burning sensation or similar sensations sometimes experienced
after eating certain sorts of cheese has been attributed to the
presence of small amounts of free fatty acids.[12] It is commonly
said that cheese is difficult to digest, the idea being that the body
expends more labor in assimilating it than is required for other
comparable foods. Experiments recently carried on by the Office of
Experiment Stations in which the respiration calorimeter was used to
study the energy expenditure during the period of active digestion,
do not indicate that cheese differs materially in ease of digestion
from a comparable amount of meat.[13] Uncooked full-cream cheese
was used in these experiments. Another series recently begun by the
Office of Experiment Stations with cooked cheese, though not yet
sufficiently advanced to be conclusive, indicates that cheese thus
eaten does not differ materially from raw cheese in this respect.
In connection with the use of cooked cheese in the diet, one fact
should always be kept in mind. This is that, in common with all
other fatty foods, cheese which has been overheated in cooking is
likely to contain burned—that is, decomposed—fats. Disturbances from
this cause, however, should be laid to poor cooking and not to the
composition of this special food.
The use of potassium bicarbonate has often been recommended for
increasing the digestibility of cheese, the amount suggested being a
level teaspoonful to a pound of cheese. That the bicarbonate renders
the cheese soluble in any appreciable degree, as has been claimed,
is not apparent from a number of experiments which have been made.
It does, however, neutralize some of the free fatty acids of the
cheese, thus destroying some of the characteristic flavor. To some
people this may be an advantage, but to others it would be counted a
disadvantage.
FOOTNOTES:
[10] U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus. Circ. 166.
[11] Minnesota Sta. Bul. 74.
[12] Hutchison’s “Food and the Principles of Dietetics,” London,
1901, p. 145.
[13] U. S. Dept. Agr., An. Rpt. Sec. 1910, p. 149; Rpt. Office Expt.
Stas. 1910, p. 35; Yearbook 1910, p. 359.
THE USE OF CHEESE IN THE DIET.
It has been the purpose, in preparing this discussion of cheese,
to consider ways in which mild-flavored sorts may serve as staple
articles of diet, rather than the use of highly flavored varieties
as appetizers and as accompaniments of other foods. The use
of highly flavored cheese as a condiment is customary and may
profitably be extended, since it offers a simple way of adding to
the attractiveness of the diet. The variety of the cheese selected
is a matter of choice, some persons preferring such kinds as
well-ripened American full-cream cheese or the potted cheeses, and
others such sorts as Roquefort, Camembert, and other varieties.
From the physiologist’s standpoint, cheese used in this way for its
flavor should really form a part of a well-balanced meal rather than
be added to a meal which already supplies an abundance of nutritive
material. In other words, condimental cheeses may better accompany a
moderate than a very generous menu.
In considering the use of cheese in quantity as an integral part of
the diet there are many possibilities from simple combinations like
bread and cheese to elaborate dishes in which cheese is used as a
flavor and as a principal constituent.
As has been pointed out, cheese, being rich in both protein and fat,
would logically replace such foods as meat, fish, and eggs when
taken in quantity, rather than cereal foods characterized by a large
amount of starch, or succulent foods, such as vegetables and fruits.
In planning menus of which cheese forms a large part the housekeeper
should bear these facts in mind.
BILL-OF-FARE MAKING WITH CHEESE AS THE CENTRAL FOOD.
Since meat has so generally been the chief protein food of a meal,
and the kind selected usually has determined the choice of vegetables
and condiments, it is not strange that very many housekeepers should
be inexperienced and consequently unskillful in planning meals in
which cheese is substituted for meat when for any reason they may
desire to make such a change. In seeking skill they might take a
suggestion from the experiments to which reference has been made,
and also from a case investigated and reported by the Office of
Experiment Stations, of a man who lived for months upon a diet of
bread, fruit, and cheese, and who remained in good health and active,
and did not weary of the monotony of the diet.
The first two articles of the diet mentioned, namely, the bread and
the cheese, could have been taken in such amounts as to constitute
what is usually considered a balanced ration, i.e., in such amounts
as to supply the right quantity of muscle-forming foods in comparison
with the energy value. The bread and cheese taken with the fruit,
however, make a ration which is well balanced not only in the older
and more widely accepted sense, but also in the more modern sense
that it makes an attractive and palatable combination of foods, as
well as a balanced ration, and thus favors digestion. The watery and
refreshing fruits or succulent vegetables with their large supply
of cellulose are a pleasant contrast to the concentrated and fatty
cheese.
Housekeepers would probably find that if in planning menus of which
a cheese dish is the chief feature they were to take pains to supply
also crisp, watery vegetables, water cress, celery, lettuce served
with a dressing or with salt alone, or simple fruit salads, and would
give preference to refreshing fruits, either fresh or cooked, rather
than to what are known as heavy desserts, they would in general be
more successful in pleasing those who are served.
There is another point also to be considered in combining cheese with
other foods. Whether it is raw or cooked it is likely to be somewhat
soft, and so seems to call for the harder kinds of bread—crusty
rolls or biscuit, zweiback, toast, pulled bread, rye bread, the
harder brown breads, or crackers, and some of the numerous crisp
ready-to-eat cereal breakfast foods. Brittle cookies, too, seem more
suitable than rich soft cakes or puddings for the dessert in such
meals.
A few bills of fare are given below which experience has shown to
represent combinations of dishes which are palatable and which, if
eaten in usual amounts, will supply protein and energy in proportions
which accord with usual dietary standards. Menus such as these are
more commonly served at lunch or at supper, but they might equally
well be served for dinner, the selection of dishes for any meal being
of course chiefly a matter of custom and convenience for those who
have any range of choice.
_Suggested bills of fare in which cheese dishes are the chief source
of protein and fat._
MENU NO. 1.
Macaroni and cheese (p. 26 or p. 27).
Raisin bread or date bread.
Orange and water-cress salad.
Baked apples.
Sugar cookies.
Cocoa.
MENU NO. 2.
Cheese fondue (p. 24 or p. 25).
Toast, zwieback, or thin and crisp baking-powder biscuit.
Celery.
Potatoes, baked, boiled, or fried in deep fat.
Peas, or some other fresh vegetables.
Coffee.
Fruit salad with crisp cookies or meringues.
MENU NO. 3.
Clear soup.
Baked eggs with cheese (p. 29) or Boston roast (p. 28).
Baked potatoes.
Lettuce salad.
A sweet jelly, crab apple or quince for example, or a preserve.
Rye bread.
Orange or banana shortcake.
Tea.
These bills of fare should be taken as suggestive merely and not as
a solution of the problem. In fact, the whole art of making bills of
fare needs developing. There is abundant evidence that overeating,
where it exists, is frequently due to the fact that meals are not
skillfully planned. People often continue eating after they have
taken enough in total bulk because they have not had all they want
of some particular kind of food. The meal has contained too large a
percentage of proteid or too much starch; has been too moist or too
dry; too highly flavored or not sufficiently flavored. Bill-of-fare
making calls not only for knowledge of food values but also for skill
in combining flavors and textures.
In this discussion of menu making, and of the use of cheese as an
integral part of the diet, the aim has been to suggest ways of
using cheese to add to the palatability of meals made up of usual
dishes, and to suggest dishes containing cheese which could serve as
substitutes for meat dishes when so desired, and also for dishes of
many sorts to be used as taste suggests and in which the nutritive
value as well as the flavor is increased by the addition of cheese.
If cheese is used and in quantity, it is obvious that some other
proteid and fat foods should be diminished, in order that the meal or
day’s menu may not be unduly hearty.
For the convenience of the housekeeper, a number of recipes for
cheese dishes are given in later pages, these being preceded by
directions for making cottage cheese and other similar cheeses which
are usually made in the home.
HOMEMADE CHEESE.
Even as late as a generation or two ago cheese of different kinds was
made at home for family use, as sour-milk or cottage cheese still is,
and cheese making was very generally a farm industry, cheese, like
butter, being sold by the farmer who made it. Cottage cheese is very
commonly homemade. Most types of cheese, however, are now as a rule
made on a large scale in factories where advantage may be taken of
labor-saving devices. The general topic of farm cheese making has
been considered in an earlier bulletin of this series,[14] prepared
by the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry.
Curds and Whey.
Cheese curds and whey, an old-fashioned dish, which is often spoken
of in accounts of life in earlier times, sometimes refers to
sour-milk curd and sometimes to curd separated with rennet. This
dish when made with rennet is much like junket and though far less
common to-day than was once the case is wholesome and palatable.
Cottage Cheese.
This cheese is very commonly prepared in the home, and the process
of making it is very simple. It consists merely of curdling the
milk, separating the curd from the whey, seasoning, and pressing it.
The curd is formed by the souring of the milk, and the process is
hastened if the milk is kept warm, the best temperature being about
blood heat, 96° F. A temperature much above this should be avoided,
as the curd is likely to become hard and tough if much heated. The
danger is usually not that the whole will be overheated but that
the portion nearest the fire will be. In the old-fashioned kitchen
there was usually a place where the milk could stand till it was
uniformly warm throughout. With our present cooking arrangements
it is often desirable to hasten the process. This may be done by
setting the milk into a pan of warm water or by pouring hot water
directly into the milk itself. The effect of the latter method
is to remove much more of the acid than when the whey is left
undiluted. Some consider this a great advantage.
If, for any reason, the curd is overheated, it should be put
through a meat chopper. This will insure cottage cheese of
excellent texture.
If the milk is thoroughly chilled before the whey is drained off
it retains more of the fat than if this is done when warm. Under
no circumstances, however, is much of the fat retained in cottage
cheese. It is therefore more economical to make it out of skim milk
and to add the fat to the curd in the form of butter or cream.
Chopped parsley, caraway seeds, chopped olives, and pimiento may
all be used for flavoring if such flavored cheese is preferred to
plain cottage cheese.
Cottage cheese[15] is most commonly consumed immediately, but if
made in quantity for commercial purposes, it may be packed in tubs
and placed in cold storage. Sometimes it is formed into rolls or
blocks and wrapped in tinfoil when marketed. Such cheese is used
without ripening.
Though cottage cheese is usually made by allowing the milk to sour
naturally, it is sometimes more convenient to curdle the milk by
adding rennet, and some housekeepers have a preference for cottage
cheese thus made, since the flavor is milder and the acid taste
which it possesses when made from sour milk is lacking.
Sour-Cream Cheese.
When cream is to be made into cheese similar to cottage cheese,
it should be drained without having previously been heated. The
drainage is facilitated by moistening the cloth in salt water
before the cream is poured in. The curd is formed either by souring
or by the addition of rennet.