in the same direction, for any great length of time; it even changes
daily and during the hours of a day; but the aggregate for a year will
rarely exceed three or four minutes of arc. If we reflect then, upon
the great use made of the compass in the settlement of the continent,
and the proverbial neglect of the country surveyor of those days to
record the local variation, or declination, with his work, we may see a
little of the utility and practical purposes to which the results are
constantly being applied. Property so little thought of a hundred years
ago that a few acres more or less, lost or acquired, in its transfer
defined by compass surveys, may suddenly assume a value in these days
of progress that every square foot is worth dollars. When a dispute
arises, deeds are examined, lost or obliterated marks are diligently
sought for, perhaps one is found, surveyors are employed to run out the
lines but only make the confusion worse. Instead of a few rods that
were in doubt according to the best information, the surveyor's line
makes it acres, and litigation looms up to eat the profits of the
sudden rise, and there seems even then no satisfactory solution of the
vexing problem. How valuable then must be the fact, that it is possible
to compute the variation for years back, to the time the original
survey was made, and furnish the deflection that will re-run the lines
so clearly as to render the descriptions in the deed intelligible. This
is but a single instance of the practical application of the knowledge
gained; and if its general usefulness may be judged by the numerous
inquiries made of the Bureau, it is not unreasonable to assume that
time will bear increasing testimony of its great economic value from
those who traverse the land, as well as those who sail on the waters.
The study of the recurrence of the tides along our extensive Coast
lines, and determination of laws that would satisfy the great variance
in the different periods, was a problem of no little magnitude but the
greatest possible importance to our commerce. Much of the traffic along
the coasts literally moves with the tides, and the cost of
transportation is enhanced or diminished as the tide retards or
advances it. Hundreds of dollars of expense may be incurred on a single
cargo that must enter on the high water, but through imperfect
knowledge of the master of the ship, is forced after sighting his port,
to wait for the next tide, perhaps over night, and is driven to sea by
a sudden storm and the voyage made several days longer. Such mishaps
are not infrequent, and even at the great port of New York certain
classes of vessels must "wait for the tide." The investigation of this
complex subject has resulted in the acquirement of a knowledge that
enables the prediction of the time of high and low water, and the
height of the tidal wave, years in advance; and the mariner may now
carry with him the tables published on the subject wherever he goes,
and be independent of the doubtful communications he may otherwise
receive from the shore. How many lives, how many dollars, have been
saved by the knowledge gained?
But the investigation of the Tidal phenomena is of great scientific
importance also; and a practical assistance in the great problems
involved in the preservation and improvement of our harbors, but in
this connection it probably falls more properly under the head of that
greater study of the currents and their effects in the erosion, and
building of the shores; the movement of the sands and formation of
shoals and channels; termed "Physical Hydrography." Our commerce
depends largely on this study for its perpetuation, for without harbors
commerce must cease; and without harbors that will admit vessels of the
largest class it must deteriorate. If commerce finds increased profits
in large vessels it demands increased facilities, and the bars to the
harbors with but six or eight feet of water on them a few years ago,
must have ten, perhaps fifteen feet now, or the people must suffer
their trade to pass to some more fortunate or energetic neighbor. This
may be a hardship; but the demands of trade are inexorable, the profits
must be reasonably assured, and those who would have the trade must
comply with the requirements. Thus we see the striving for harbor
improvements; the weakest making the greatest outcry that they shall
not be left in the race. And the improvements must come in the end, or
at least be attempted, for it is as much a law of commerce not to be
hampered by small freights, as it is the law of nature that water flows
down hill.
The outcry for "improvements" never grows weaker; it is the expression
of a sincere conviction that the life of the community and the welfare
of the "back country" depend upon its success for prosperity; it will
not admit a rebuff and knows no such word as failure. Alleged
authorities are consulted, a scheme of improvement is proposed and
Congress is asked to vote the money, and finally the improvements are
attempted. To be successful, the plan must conform to known general
laws and the peculiarities of local conditions, many of which are only
ascertainable by comparison of surveys at different periods. Theories
advanced on data collected by one survey, may be strengthened or
disproved by the facts ascertained in a subsequent survey; and it is
only when the plan proposed meets the general laws and the local
conditions at the same time, that it holds out promise of success. The
study of the questions involved has been greatly aided by the work of
the Coast Survey in improvements already attempted, and will be of
greater assistance in the future. A positive knowledge of what the
local conditions were when a harbor was at its greatest capacity, is of
the greatest help in indicating the improvements necessary to restore
it, after deterioration, or to maintain it in the full measure of its
usefulness. Reliable charts do this, but they tell only half the story.
A cause must be found for the effects that have been produced, and the
remedy suggested must overcome that cause or control it, that it may
work good instead of evil. In Physical Hydrography we learn the forces
that nature has given us in the tides, the currents and the winds, and
divert them from powers of destruction, as man in his ignorance may
have led them, or in their warfare with one another they may have led
themselves; and bring their mighty influence to protect, improve or
maintain that which we originally had. Many harbors have suffered
incalculable injury through the recklessness of these who live upon
them, and whose daily bread is dependent upon their preservation; until
the evil has become so great that commercial cities have now "Harbor
Commissions," whose special function is the preservation and
improvement of the harbors. The original surveys made by Coast Survey
are the foundations on which they very generally must build, while
re-surveys point out to them the obstacles that must be overcome. And
thus it will ever be; and future generations endeavoring to meet the
demands of commerce for increased facilities, will have still greater
cause for thankfulness, that the wise men who inaugurated the work of
the Coast Survey, determined that it should be executed with every
improvement that science could devise; and that the able men who
conducted it, did not yield to the clamor for quick returns and cheap
results, of only momentary value. They will realize by the benefits
they will derive from it, as do those now living who have watched its
progress and development, that the best is the cheapest as it will be
useful through all time.
In 1871 Congress authorized the execution of a Geodetic triangulation
across the continent to connect the great primary triangulations along
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and provided that the triangulation
should determine positions in those States that made requisite
provision for topographical and geological surveys of their own
territories. Each year since then, a small sum has been expended on
these works with gratifying results to the States that have availed
themselves of the assistance. But it was not until 1878 that Congress
designated the Bureau as the "Coast and Geodetic Survey," the official
title it bears at this time. Many comments have been passed upon the
action of Congress in extending the field of the survey to the interior
in the establishment of a "Geodetic Survey," which has been looked upon
as a purely scientific research for which the people had no immediate
use, and could well afford to wait. But if the tree can be judged by
its fruit, there will be no lack of testimony to the economic value of
the Geodetic Survey in the near future; aside from its scientific and
practical usefulness in perfecting the Survey of the Coasts. It will
eventually be the basis for a precise survey of the whole country,
determining boundaries, settling disputes, and furnishing
incontrovertible data by which later generations can reproduce the
marks placed by the local surveyors who make use of it, should they
become obliterated or lost; thereby causing a direct increase in the
security of property boundaries, and diminution in litigation that now
costs millions of dollars annually. Some of the practical advantages to
be derived from such a work, are now being demonstrated in
Massachusetts in the "Town boundary Survey," as it is called, in which
the corners, or turning points of the boundaries are being determined
trigonometrically in a subsidiary work based upon the Geodetic
triangulation of the Coast Survey. Each boundary corner in this scheme
becomes a fixed point, and the direction and distance of many other
corners are at once accurately ascertained in their true relations to
it. The town boundaries will in due time be made the bases of reference
for all local surveys and subdivisions of property; so that,
eventually, there will be developed a cadastral map of unrivaled
excellence, to supplement the Topographical map that has just been
completed.
The imperfections of our "land surveys," brilliant as the scheme was
conceived to be at the time of its inauguration, demonstrate only too
clearly the extravagance of primitive methods in matters intended to be
enduring. As time passes and property taken up under the "land survey"
becomes more valuable, the difficulty of accurately identifying
boundaries becomes more serious, until finally, it is only after long
litigation that rights are determined. The inherent defect in the land
survey to accomplish the purpose for which it was designed, lies in the
fact, that while it parcels out the land, or a section of land, in a
given number of lots, it fails to provide the means for identifying the
boundaries of the lots at any future time; the marks placed for this
purpose become obliterated or perhaps are moved by designing men, until
a large area may be involved in great uncertainty. A triangulation
covering the same ground and controlled by Geodetic work, determining
the true positions of the old marks that may be left, would be the most
economical and precise method of relieving these uncertainties and
fixing for all time the location and boundaries of the lots originally
parcelled out, by observations and marks that cannot be lost or
obliterated.
The system of weights and measures in use throughout the country is
largely due to the patient labor of the Coast Survey. Required by law
to have standards of length, the only bureau in the public service that
required such a measure of precision, it was in the natural order of
events that the Superintendent of the Survey should also be charged
with the maintenance of standards of Weight and Capacity. The
duplication of standards for the use of the people was begun under Mr.
Hassler, so long ago that the system has really grown with the
population. Wise legislation has fostered the sentiment of uniformity
until we are indeed blessed, that wherever we may be in all our broad
domain, a pound is a pound, a yard is a yard, and a bushel is a bushel.
Manufacturers receive their standards from the Bureau, and in special
cases have their products tested and certified. And individuals engaged
upon work of great refinement, seek the stamp of the Bureau, also, upon
the measures on which they must rely. But so careful is the Bureau to
preserve the integrity of its certificate, that the stamp is refused
except on weights or measures of approved metal and workmanship.
Business men realize in every day life the benefits that have been
derived from the simple legislation that inaugurated a supervision over
the weights and measures of the country early in her history, though
they may have no conception of the endless annoyances they would have
been subjected to had the preservation and duplication of standards not
been provided for.
The limited time assigned to me will not permit a detailed statement of
the researches made by the Bureau in all the different branches of
science related to the practical conduct of the work, much less a
reference, even, to the many improvements instituted in the practice of
surveying. As in the case of the observatories called upon to replace
their defective instruments with those more refined, to enable them to
furnish star places of sufficient precision to meet the improved method
of determining latitude, so has the demand ever been upon the experts
employed upon the work in all its branches. The Triangulation,
Topography, Hydrography, Astronomy and Magnetics have all passed
through several stages of development and improvement in methods and
instruments, to meet the requirements put forth by those charged with
the conduct of the work, that the full measure of harmony desired
should be secured and that they might supply the demands made upon them
for information. Imperfect results indicate defects to be remedied, and
it is to the credit of those who performed the labor, that they
overcame one difficulty after another as they were developed, until now
the methods and instruments in the hands of experts, will produce far
superior results at a much less cost than was possible at the time the
Survey was inaugurated.
The charting of the great ocean currents, has long been an interesting
investigation to hydrographers the world over. A sketch of the efforts,
projects, and devices that have been resorted to by the Coast Survey in
the attempt to unravel the mysteries of the Gulf Stream, would
exemplify the continuous demand for improvement and new exertions under
which those employed upon the work have always labored, although the
full measure of knowledge sought has not yet been obtained. But it is
not necessary to enter into these details at this time; let it suffice
that many experiments and failures pointed out the path to be followed
by subsequent observers, and stimulated to new efforts, until at last
appliances have been perfected that have already produced wonders, and
it is safe to predict, will ere many years show the ocean currents on
the charts of the world with the same relative precision that the
currents in a river or harbor can now be indicated. Lieutenant Maury
gave us current charts that were a marvel in their day, but his
information, or data, was defective, and his conclusions, therefore,
only approximate; and how to improve on the data he had, has ever since
been the subject of research. The depth of the ocean is necessarily an
important factor in the study of its features, as erroneous depths lead
to false hypotheses. The introduction by the English of a method of
sounding with a wire, has therefore proved an important advance.
American officers have perfected the apparatus and severely tested the
methods, demonstrating the reliability of the results and the total
unreliability of the old deep sea soundings taken with a line. These
accurate wire soundings have revealed new facts, disproved old theories
and formed new ones to guide future researches. So successful is the
improved apparatus that specimens of the bottom of the ocean have been
brought up from a depth of five miles. The great value of this system,
however, is not confined to the mere ascertainment of depths for the
hydrographer and cartographer, as may be readily demonstrated by
referring to the reports of the Fish Commissioner. A further step
towards improving on Maury's results; the crowning glory that is to
shed light on much that has been dark, and trace out those ocean
currents we have heretofore vainly endeavored to follow, is found in
the invention and devices of a naval officer attached to the Survey,
whereby he can anchor the ship in mid-ocean and observe the direction
and velocity of the current as from a stationary body, and with a
"current meter," also his own invention, determine the same factors
hundreds of feet below the surface; thus ascertaining not only the
movement at the surface, but the depth of the body of water that moves,
and the velocity at various depths, so that finally we have the
volume--a quantity--to be followed until it meets other currents or is
absorbed in the vast expanse. Already current observations have been
recorded with the ship anchored at the great depth of eighteen hundred
fathoms; and arrangements have been perfected that it is believed will
prove successful at the greater depth of three thousand fathoms. It is
impossible with our superficial knowledge of the great ocean currents
to estimate the benefits that will be derived from their systematic
exploration. It is not probable that the absolute determination of
their limits would produce such a revolution in navigation, as was
caused by Maury's wind charts, but it is reasonably certain they would
prove a valuable assistance to the navigator, and in the great channels
and bays of the world increase his facilities for the successful
navigation of his ship. Not a little of their value, perhaps the larger
part, will be of an indirect nature, resulting from their study by
investigators in the natural sciences interested in utilizing the
bounties of nature for benefit of man.
The Survey was instituted for the determination of facts, and the
presentation of them in an intelligible form. It does not promulgate
theories, and has no use for them beyond the assistance they may be in
indicating the line of research necessary to ascertain the facts; but
rather leaves to the student the formulation of the theories that may
be deduced from the facts presented. The publications of the Survey
are, therefore, calculated to contain only useful, practical
information, on the subjects of which they treat. An examination of
them will show this to be the case, and further, that error has more
likely been committed by over-caution, than a too free use of the
material at command. Doubtless much has been suppressed through lack of
means, as it has always been the aim of the Superintendents to expend
the appropriations in producing the most useful results, whether in
surveys to be made or facts to be published. It necessarily requires
many years to complete a precise survey over a large area; and in the
work of the Coast Survey, with the people in all sections of our
extended coast line petitioning for surveys at the same time, the
problem was beset with additional difficulties. Fortunately Congress
prescribed the method on which the work should be conducted, and that
the method permitted making surveys widely separated with the certainty
that they could eventually be joined and form a consistent whole. Soon
after the plan of reorganization of 1843 had been adopted, surveying
parties were on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts at many points; the
principal harbors and headlands with outlying shoals were first
surveyed and it was but a few years before charts of them were
published. The less important shores between these points were left for
future work, but Hydrographic examinations or Nautical surveys, were
made of them, and preliminary charts of long stretches of coast were
issued, to be followed when the surveys had been completed by the
finished chart of reliable data. So elastic was the system adopted for
the conduct of the work, that its availability was limited only by the
annual appropriations. Soon after the annexation of Texas surveying
parties were on that coast, and on the acquisition of California a few
years subsequently parties were soon at work there also; and after the
close of the war and purchase of Alaska, the immense field thus opened
was attacked with equal promptness, and a reconnaissance made that
resulted in a map of considerable accuracy. As the precise surveys were
extended the charts and plans published from the preliminary surveys
were withdrawn, the new charts necessarily having later dates.
The original surveys of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts are now
practically completed, but very little more remaining to be done in a
few comparatively unimportant localities. On the Pacific coast precise
surveys supplemented by careful reconnaissance of less important
sections, define nearly the whole outline, excepting Alaska, but a
great deal of work is still required to obtain the full measure of
information necessary to accurately chart it. And in Alaska, Nautical
surveys have developed long stretches of the "Inland passage" and the
most important anchorages, supplementing the general reconnaissance of
the whole coast line. A very large proportion of our shores, however,
are subject to such radical changes from natural causes, that the
survey of the coast can never be brought to final completion.
Examinations and re-surveys are as essential as was the original work,
if the material already acquired is to be maintained in the full
measure of its usefulness, and commerce is to continue to reap the
legitimate benefit of the expenditures already incurred. Fortunately
the survey has been conducted on such sound principles it meets the
increasing requirements for accuracy demanded by the navigation of
to-day, as fully as it did the more simple needs of the navigator of
forty years ago, and it is fairly believed, whatever may be the
necessities of the future, that it will still supply the information
desired.
The Surveys are published in four hundred and fifty charts designed to
meet the various needs of the Navigator and Civil Engineer, for either
general or local purposes; over thirty thousand copies of these are
issued annually and there is a steadily increasing demand.
The assistance rendered to the armies and fleets of the Union, in the
late Civil War, is a chapter in the history of the Survey that should
not be forgotten. The office in Washington was beset with demands for
information from all over the country, for descriptions not of the
coast alone, but all sections of the interior representing the seat of
war. Fortunately the experts were there who, under the direction of
able chiefs, could collect and compile such material as was available.
The labor of the office in this cause resulted in the publication of a
series of "War Maps" of the interior, for which there is frequent
demand even at the present day. This was all additional work to a force
already overburdened in the preparation of manuscript maps and special
information, compiled from the reports of the Field parties; especially
of those localities that had only recently been surveyed. And in all
the din and excitement of the call to arms, with hosts of stalwart,
honest men assembled around him, that might give in their learning the
wisdom of the world, the controlling mind of the Survey, that had
labored diligently and sought knowledge patiently, was a chosen
counsellor of the Chief of the Nation. Declining military honors, the
profession in which he had been educated, he devoted himself with
renewed energy to assisting the nation's efforts in those special
duties he knew so well how to perform. A patriot himself of the purest
type, he inspired those around him by his ennobling spirit and zeal in
the cause.
An average of twenty parties were maintained with the Army and Navy
during all the years of the war, rendering services of acknowledged
value to the military forces. An officer of the Coast Survey piloted
the fleet into Port Royal; another led the Iron Clads in the attack on
Sumter; a third stationed the fleet in the bombardment of Jackson and
St. Philip; and a fourth rendered signal services in the assault on
Fort Fisher. They were on the Peninsula, guides in the wilderness on
the retreat to Malvern Hill; at Chickamauga, Knoxville, Missionary
Ridge; the march to the Sea and pursuit through the Carolinas; on the
Red river; before Petersburgh; in the Sounds of North Carolina; the Sea
Islands of Georgia and Florida and the swamps of Louisiana; and,
wherever they went, few in numbers though they were, they gained honor
for their cause and credit for their Chief.