Lakes—Northern System of the Great Continent—Mountain System of the
same—American Lakes.
THE hollows formed on the surface of the earth by the ground sinking or
rising, earthquakes, streams of lava, craters of extinct volcanos, the
intersection of strata, and those that occur along the edges of the
different formations, are generally filled with water, and constitute
systems of lakes, some salt and some fresh. Many of the former may be
remnants of an ancient ocean left in the depressions of its beds during
its retreat as the continent arose.
Almost all lakes are fed by springs in their beds, and they are
occasionally the sources of the largest rivers. Some have neither
tributaries nor outlets; the greater number have both. The quantity of
water in lakes varies with the seasons everywhere, especially from the
melting snow on mountain-chains and in high latitudes, and from
periodical rains, between the tropics. Small lakes occur in
mountain-passes, formed by water which runs into them from the
commanding peaks; they are frequently, as in the Alps, very transparent,
of a bright green or azure hue. Large lakes are common on table-lands,
and in the valleys of mountainous countries, but the largest are on
extensive plains. The basin of a lake comprehends all the land drained
by it; consequently it is bounded by an imaginary line passing through
the sources of all the waters that fall into it.
There are more lakes in high than in low latitudes, because evaporation
is much greater in low latitudes than in high, and in this respect there
is a great analogy between the northern plains of the two principal
continents. Sheets of water of great beauty occur in the mountain
valleys of the British islands, of Norway, and Sweden, countries similar
in geological structure; and besides these there are two regions in the
old world in which lakes particularly abound. One begins on the low
coast of Holland, goes round the southern and eastern sides of the
Baltic, often passing close to its shores, along the Gulf of Bothnia,
and through the Siberian plains to Behring’s Straits. The lakes which
cover so much of Finland and the great lakes of Ladoga and Onega lie in
a parallel direction; they occupy transverse rents which had taken place
across the palæozoic strata, while rising in a direction from S.W. to
N.E., between the Gulf of Finland and the White Sea; that elevation was,
perhaps, the cause of the cavities now occupied by these two seas.
Ladoga is the largest lake in this zone, having a surface of nearly 1000
square miles. It receives tributary streams, and sends off its
superfluous water by rivers, and Onega does the same; but the multitude
of small steppe lakes among the Ural mountains and in the basin of the
river Obi neither receive nor emit rivers, being for the most part mere
ponds, though of great size, some of fresh and some of salt water, lying
close together—a circumstance which has not been accounted for: those on
the low Siberian plains have the same character.
The second system of lakes in the old continent follows the zone of the
mountain mass, and comprehends those of the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines,
Asia Minor, the Caspian, the Lake Aral, together with those on the
table-land and in the mountains of central Asia.
In the Pyrenees, lakes are most frequent on the French side; many are at
such altitudes as to be perpetually frozen: one on Mont Perdu, 8393 feet
above the sea, has the appearance of an ancient volcanic crater. There
is scarcely a valley in the Alpine range and its offsets that has not a
sheet of water, no doubt owing to the cavities formed during the
elevation of the ridges, and, in some instances, to subsidence of the
soil; Lake Trüb, 7200 feet above the level of the sea, is the most
elevated. There are more lakes on the north than on the south side of
the Alps—the German valleys are full of them. In Bohemia, Gallicia, and
Moravia, there are no less than 30,000 sheets of water, besides great
numbers throughout the Austrian empire.
Of the principal lakes on the northern side of the Alps, the Lake of
Geneva, or Lake Leman, is the most beautiful from its situation, the
pure azure of the waters, and the sublime mountains that surround it.
Its surface, of about 240 square miles, is 1150 feet above the sea, and
near Meillerie it is 1012 deep. The lake of Lucerne is 1400 feet above
the sea, and the lakes of Brienz 1900 feet. The Italian Lakes are at a
lower level; the Lago Maggiore has only 678 feet of absolute altitude;
they are larger than most of those on the north of the Alps, and, with
the advantage of an Italian climate, sky, and vegetation, they surpass
the others in beauty, though the mountains that surround them are less
lofty.
These great lakes are fed by rivers rising in the glaciers of the higher
Alps, and many large rivers issue from them. In this respect they differ
from most of the lakes in Lower Italy, some of which are craters of
ancient volcanos, or perhaps ancient craters of elevation, where the
earth had been swelled up by subterranean vapour without bursting, and
had sunk down again into a hollow when the internal pressure was
removed.
In Syria, the Lake of Tiberias and the Dead Sea, sacred memorials to the
Christian world, are situate in the deepest cavity on the earth. The
surface of the Lake Tiberias is 329 feet below the level of the
Mediterranean, surrounded by verdant plains bearing aromatic shrubs;
while the heavy bitter waters of the Dead Sea, 1312 feet below the level
of the Mediterranean, is a scene of indescribable desolation and
solitude, encompassed by desert sands, and bleak, stony, salt hills.
Thus, there is a difference of level of 983 feet in little more than 60
miles, which makes the course of the river Jordan very rapid. The water
of the Dead Sea is so acrid, from the large proportion of saline matter
it contains, that it irritates the skin: it is more buoyant, and has a
greater proportion of salt, than any that is known except the small lake
of Eltonsk east of the Volga.[123]
Though extensive sheets of water exist in many parts of Asia Minor,
especially in Bithynia, yet the characteristic feature of the country,
and of all the table-land of western Asia and the adjacent steppes, is
the number and magnitude of the saline lakes. A region of salt lakes and
marshes extends at least 200 miles along the northern foot of the Taurus
range, on a very elevated part of the table-land of Anatolia. There are
also many detached lakes, some exceedingly saline. Fish cannot live in
the Lake of Toozla; it is shallow, and subject to excessive evaporation.
Neither can any animal exist in the Lake of Shahee or Urmiah, on the
confines of Persia and Armenia, 300 miles in circumference: its water is
perfectly clear, and contains a fourth part of its weight of saline
matter. These lakes are fed by springs, rain, and melted snow, and,
having no emissaries, the surplus water is carried off by evaporation.
It is possible that the volcanic soil of the table-land may be the cause
of this exuberance of salt water. Lake Van, a sheet of salt water 240
miles in circumference, is separated from the equally salt lake Urmiah
only by a low range of hills; and there are many pieces of fresh water
in that neighbourhood, possibly in similar hollows.
Persia is singularly destitute of water; the Lake of Zurrah, on the
frontiers of Afghanistan, having an area of 18 square miles, is the only
piece of water on the western part of the table-land of Iran.
It is evident from the saline nature of the soil, and the shells it
contains, that the plains round the Caspian, the Lake Aral, and the
steppes, even to the Ural Mountains, had once formed part of the Black
Sea; 57,000 square miles of that country are depressed below the level
of the ocean—a depression which extends northwards beyond the town of
Saratov, 300 miles distant from the Caspian. The surface of the Caspian
itself, which is 83 feet 7 inches below the level of the ocean, is its
lowest part, and has an area of 18,000 square miles, nearly equal to the
area of Spain. In Europe alone it drains an extent of 850,000 square
miles, receiving the Volga, the Ural, and other great rivers on the
north. It has no tide, and its navigation is dangerous from heavy gales,
especially from the south-east, which drive the water miles over the
land; a vessel was stranded 46 miles inland from the shore. It is 600
feet deep to the south, but is shallower to the east where it is bounded
by impassable swamps many miles broad.[124] The Lake of Eltonsk, on the
steppe east of the Volga, has an area of 130 square miles, and furnishes
two-thirds of the salt consumed in Russia. Its water yields 29·13 per
cent. of saline matter, and from this circumstance is more buoyant than
any that is known.[125]
The Lake of Aral, which is shallow, is higher than the Caspian, and has
an area of 3372 square miles; it has its name from the number of small
islands at its southern end, Aral signifying “island” in the Tartar
language. Neither the Caspian nor the Lake of Aral have any outlets,
though they receive large rivers; they are brackish, and, in common with
all the lakes in Persia, they are decreasing in extent, and becoming
more salt, the quantity of water supplied by tributaries being less than
that lost by evaporation. Most of the rivers that are tributary to the
Lake of Aral are diminished by canals, that carry off water for
irrigation: for that reason a very diminished portion of the waters of
the Oxus reaches the lake. Besides, the Russian rivers yield less water
than formerly from the progress of cultivation. The small mountain-lake
Sir-i-Kol, in the high table-land of Pamer, from whence the Oxus flows,
is 15,600 feet above the sea; consequently there is a difference of
level between it and the Dead Sea of nearly 17,000 feet.
The small number of lakes in the Himalaya is one of the peculiarities of
these mountains. The Lake of Ular, in the valley of Cashmere, is the
only one of any magnitude; it is but 40 miles in circumference, and
seems to be the residue of one that had filled the whole valley at some
early period. There are many great lakes, both fresh and salt, on the
table-land; the annular form of Lake Palte, at the northern base of the
Himalaya, as represented on maps, is unexampled; the sacred lakes of
Manasarowar, in Great Tibet, and of Rakas Tal, occupy a space of about
400 square miles, in the centre of the Himalaya, between the gigantic
peaks of Gurla on the south and of Kailas on the north; it is from the
westernmost of these lakes (which communicate with each other), the Cho
Lagan of the Tibetians, that the Sutlej rises, at an elevation of 15,200
feet above the level of the sea. These remarkable lakes mark the point
from around which all the great rivers rising in the Himalaya have their
origin. Tibet is full of lakes, many of which produce borax, found
nowhere else but in Tuscany and in the Lipari Islands. As most of the
great lakes on the table-land are in the Chinese territories, strangers
have not had access to them; the Koko-nor and Lake Lop seem to be very
large; the latter is said to have a surface of 2187 square miles, and
there are others not inferior to it in the north. The lakes in the Altaï
are beautiful, larger and more numerous than in any other
mountain-chain. They are at different elevations on the terraces by
which the table-land descends to the flats of Siberia, and are, owing to
geological phenomena, essentially different from those which have
produced the Caspian and other steppe lakes. They seem to have been
hollows formed where the axes of the different branches of the chain
cross, and are most numerous and deepest in the eastern Altaï. Baikal,
the largest mountain lake, supposed to owe its origin to the sinking of
the ground during an earthquake, has an area of 14,800 square miles,
nearly equal to the half of Scotland. It lies buried in the form of a
crescent, amid lofty granite mountains, which constitute the edge of the
table-land to the south, ending in the desert of the Great Gobi, and in
the north-west they gird the shore so closely that they dip into the
water in many places; 160 rivers and streams fall into this salt lake,
which drains a country probably twice the size of Britain. The river
Angara, which runs deep and strong through a crevice at its eastern end,
is its principal outlet, and is supposed to carry off but a small
proportion of its water. Its surface is 1793 feet above the sea-level,
and the climate is as severe as it is in Europe 10° farther north; yet
the lake does not freeze till the middle of December, possibly from its
depth, being unfathomable with a line of 600 feet.
Two hundred and eighty years before the Christian era, the large
fresh-water lake of Oitz, in Japan, was formed in one night, by a
prodigious sinking of the ground, at the same time that one of the
highest and most active volcanos in that country rose from the depths of
the earth.
Very extensive lakes occur in Africa; there appears to be a great number
on the low-lands on the east coast of Africa, in which many of the
rivers from the edge of the table-land terminate. Among others, there is
the salt lake Assal, 25 miles west of Tadjurra, in the country through
which the Hawash flows, which has a depression of more than 700 feet
below the level of the ocean, by Dr. Beke’s estimation, who first
observed that curious circumstance; but by the actual measurement of
Lieutenant Christopher, it is 570 feet. Notwithstanding the arid soil of
the southern table-land, it contains the fresh-water lake of N’yassi or
Zambeze, one of the largest, being some hundred miles long; and, though
narrow in proportion, it cannot be crossed in a boat of the country in
less than three days, resting at night on an island, of which there are
many. It lies between 300 and 400 miles west from the Mozambique
Channel, and begins 200 miles north of the town of Tete, which is
situate on the river Zambeze, from whence it extends from south-east to
north-west, possibly to within a degree or two of the equator. It
receives the drainage of the country to the south-east: but no river is
known to flow out of it, unless it be the Bahr-el-Abiad or White Nile,
which probably rises in this lake. No one knows what there may be in the
unexplored regions of the Ethiopian desert; but Abyssinia has the large
and beautiful lake of Dembia, situate in a spacious plain—the granary of
the country—so high above the sea that spring is perpetual, though
within the tropics. There are many other lakes in this great projecting
promontory, so full of rivers, mountains, and forests; but the lowlands
of Soudan and the country lying along the base of the northern declivity
of the table-land is the region of African lakes, of which the Tchad,
almost the size of an inland sea, is in the very centre of the
continent. Its extent, and the size of its basin, are unknown; it
receives many affluents from the high lands called the Mountains of the
Moon, certainly all those that flow from them east of Bornou, and it is
itself drained by the Tchadda, a principal tributary of the Niger. Other
lakes of less magnitude are known to exist in these regions, and there
are probably many more that are unknown. Salt-water lakes are numerous
on the northern boundaries of the great lowland deserts, and many fine
sheets of fresh water are found in the valleys and flat terraces of the
Great and Little Atlas.
Fresh-water lakes are characteristic of the higher latitudes of both
continents, but those in the old continent sink into insignificance in
comparison with the number and extent of those in the new. Indeed a very
large portion of North America is covered with fresh water; the five
principal lakes—Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario—with some
of their dependants, probably cover an area of 94,000 square miles; that
of Lake Superior alone, 32,000 which is only 1800 square miles less than
the whole of England. The American lakes contain more than half the
amount of fresh water on the globe. The altitude of these lakes shows
the slope of the continent; the absolute elevation of Lake Superior is
672 feet; Lake Huron is 30 feet lower; Lake Erie 32 feet lower than the
Huron; and Lake Ontario is 331 feet below the level of Erie. The river
Niagara, which unites the two last lakes, is 33-1/2 miles long, and in
that distance it descends 66 feet; it falls in rapids through 55 feet of
that height in the last half-mile, but the upper part of its course is
navigable. The height of the cascade of Niagara is 162 feet on the
American side of the central island, and 1125 feet wide. On the Canadian
side the fall is 149 feet high, and 2100 feet wide—the most magnificent
sheet of falling-water known, though many are higher. The river St.
Lawrence, which drains the whole, slopes 234 feet between the bottom of
the cascade and the sea. The bed of Lake Superior is 300 feet, and that
of the Ontario 268 feet below the surface of the Atlantic, affording
another instance of deep indentation in the solid matter of the globe.
Some lakes are decreasing in magnitude, though the contrary seems to be
the case in America; between the years 1825 and 1838, Ontario rose
nearly seven feet; and, according to the American engineers, Lake Erie
had gained several feet in the same time. Lake Huron is said to be the
focus of peculiar electrical phenomena, as thunder is constantly heard
in one of its bays. The lakes north of this group are innumerable; the
whole country, to the Arctic Ocean, is covered with sheets of water
which emit rivers and streams. Lake Winnipeg, Rein-deer Lake, Slave
Lake, and some others, may be regarded as the chief members of separate
groups or basins, each embracing a wide extent of country almost
unknown. There are also many lakes on each side of the Rocky Mountains;
and in Mexico there are six or seven lakes of considerable size, though
not to be compared with those in North America.
There are many sheets of water in Central America, though only one is of
any magnitude, and the Lake of Nicaragua, in the province of that name,
about 100 miles from the sea, and which communicates with the Gulf of
Mexico by the River of San Juan.
In Central America, the Andes are interrupted by plains and mere hills
on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and of Nicaragua, on each side of which
there is a series of lakes and rivers, which, aided by canals, might
form a water communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In
the former, the line proposed would connect the river Guasacalco, on the
Gulf of Mexico, with the Bay of Tehuantepec in the Pacific. In the
Isthmus of Nicaragua, the Gulf of San Juan would be connected by the
river of that name, and the chain of Lakes of Nicaragua and Leon, with
the Bay of Realejo or the Gulf of Fonseca, with the Gulf of Costa Rica.
Here the watershed is only 615 feet above the sea, and of easy
excavation, and the lake, situate in an extensive plain, is deep enough
for vessels of considerable size.
A range of lakes goes along the eastern base of the Andes, but the
greater part of them are mere lagoons or marshes, some very large, which
inundate the country to a great extent in the time of the tropical
rains. There appears to be a deep hollow in the surface of the earth at
the part where Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay meet, in which lies the
Lake Xarayos, extending on each side of the river Paraguay, but, like
many South American lakes, it is not permanent, being alternately
inundated and dry, or a marsh. Its inundations cover 36,000 square
miles. Salt and fresh water lakes are numerous on the plains of La
Plata, and near the Andes in Patagonia, resembling, in this respect,
those in high northern latitudes, though on a smaller scale.
In the elevated mountain-valleys and table-lands of the Andes there are
many small lakes of the purest blue and green colours, intensely cold,
some being near the line of perpetual congelation. They are generally of
considerable depth. The lake of Titicaca, however, in the Bolivian
Andes, has an area of 2225 square miles, of 60 to a degree, and is more
than 120 fathoms deep in many places, surrounded by splendid scenery.
Though 12,846 feet above the level of the Pacific, and consequently
higher than the Peak of Teneriffe, its shores are cultivated, producing
corn, barley, and potatoes; and peopled by a large aboriginal
population, inhabiting towns and villages. Numerous vestiges of Peruvian
civilization are everywhere to be met with; and in the island from which
it derives its name, and where tradition places the origin of the last
Inca dynasty, numerous specimens of Peruvian architecture still exist.
The limpid transparency of the water in lakes, especially in mountainous
countries, is remarkable; minute objects are visible at the bottom
through many fathoms of water. The vivid green tints so often observed
in Alpine lakes may be produced by vegetable dyes dissolved in the
water, though chemical analysis has not detected them.
Lakes, being the sources of some of the largest rivers, are of great
importance for inland navigation as well as for irrigation; while, by
their constant evaporation, they maintain the supply of humidity in the
atmosphere so essential to vegetation, besides the embellishment a
country derives from them.