TIBET _(continued)_
SECTS
Lamaism is divided into various sects, which concern the clergy rather
than the laity. The differences in doctrine are not very important.
Each sect has special tutelary deities, scriptures and practices of
its own but they all tend to borrow from one another whatever inspires
respect or attracts worshippers. The baser sort try to maintain their
dignity by imitating the institutions of the superior sects, but the
superior cannot afford to neglect popular superstitions. So the
general level is much the same. Nevertheless, these sectarian
differences are not without practical importance for each sect has
monasteries and a hierarchy of its own and is outwardly distinguished
by peculiarities of costume, especially by the hat. Further, though
the subject has received little investigation, it is probable that
different sects possess different editions of the Kanjur or at any
rate respect different books[1057]. Since the seventeenth century the
Gelugpa has been recognized as the established church and the divinity
of the Grand Lama is not disputed, but in earlier times there were
many monastic quarrels and forced conversions. In the eighteenth
century the Red clergy intrigued with the Gurkhas in the hope of
supplanting their Yellow brethren and even now they are so powerful in
eastern Tibet that this hope may not be unreasonable, should political
troubles shake the hierarchy of Lhasa. In spite of the tendency to
borrow both what is good and what is bad, some sects are on a higher
grade intellectually and morally than others. Thus the older sects do
not insist on celibacy or abstinence from alcohol, and Tantrism and
magic form the major part of religion, whereas the Gelugpa or
established church maintains strict discipline, and tantric and
magical rites, though by no means prohibited, are at least practised
in moderation.
Setting aside the earliest period, the history of Buddhism in Tibet is
briefly that it was established by Padma-Sambhava about 750, reformed by
Atîśa about 1040 and again reformed by Tsong-kha-pa about 1400. The
sects correspond to these epochs. The oldest claims to preserve the
teaching of Padma-Sambhava, those of middle date are offshoots of the
movement started by Atîśa, and the newest represents Atîśa's principal
sect corrected by the second reformation. The oldest sect is known as
Nying-ma-pa or rNyiṇ-ma-pa, signifying the old ones, and also as the
Red Church from the colour of the hats worn by the clergy. Among its
subdivisions one called the sect of Udyâna[1058], in reference to
Padma-Sambhava's birthplace, appears to be the most ancient and still
exists in the Himalayas and eastern Tibet. The Nying-ma Lamas are said
to have kept the necromancy of the old Tibetan religion more fully than
any of the reformed sects. They pay special worship to Padma-Sambhava
and accept the revelations ascribed to him. Celibacy and abstinence are
rarely observed in their monasteries but these are by no means of low
repute. Among the more celebrated are Dorje-dag and Mindolling: the
great monastery of Pemiongchi[1059] in Sikhim is a branch establishment
of the latter.
Of the sects originating in Atîśa's reformation the principal was the
Kadampa[1060], but it has lost much of its importance because it was
remodelled by Tsong-kha-pa and hence hardly exists to-day as an
independent body. The Sakya sect is connected with the great monastery
of the same name situated about fifty miles to the north of Mount
Everest and founded in 1071 by Sakya, a royal prince. It acquired great
political importance, for from 1270 to 1340 its abbots were the rulers
of Tibet. The historian Târanâtha belonged to one of its sub-sects, and
about 1600 settled in Mongolia where he founded the monastery of Urga
and established the line of reincarnate Lamas which still rules there.
But shortly after his death this monastery was forcibly taken over by
the Yellow Church and is still the centre of its influence in Mongolia.
In theology the Sakya offers nothing specially distinctive but it mixes
the Tantras of the old and new sects and according to Waddell[1061] is
practically indistinguishable from the Nying-ma-pa. The same is probably
true of the Kar-gyu-pa[1062] said to have been founded by Marpa and his
follower Milaräpa, who set an example of solitary and wandering lives.
It is sometimes described as a Nying-ma sect[1063] but appears to date
from after Atîśa's reforms, although it has a strong tendency to revert
to older practices. It has several important sub-sects, such as the
Karmapa found in Sikhim and Darjiling, as well as in Tibet, the Dugpa
which is predominant in Bhotan and perhaps in Ladak[1064], and the
Dikung-pa, which owns a large monastery one hundred miles north-east of
Lhasa. Milaräpa (or Mila), the cotton-clad saint who wandered over the
Snow-land in the light garments of an Indian ascetic, is perhaps the
post picturesque figure in Lamaism and in some ways reminds us of St.
Francis of Assisi[1065]. He was a worker of miracles and, what is rarer
in Tibet, a poet. His compositions known as the Hundred Thousand Songs
are still popular and show the same delicately sensitive love of nature
as the Psalms of the Theragâthâ.
The main distinction is between the Gelugpa or Yellow Church and all
the other sects. This is merely another way of saying that Atîśa
reformed the corrupt superstitions which he found but that his
reformed church in its turn became corrupt and required correction.
This was given by Tsong-kha-pa who belonged originally to the Kadampa.
He collected the scattered members of this sect, remodelled its
discipline, and laid the foundations of the system which made the
Grand Lamas rulers of Tibet. In externals the Gelugpa is characterized
by the use of the yellow cap and the veneration paid to Tsong-kha-pa's
image. Its Lamas are all celibate and hereditary succession is not
recognized. Among the many great establishments which belong to it are
the four royal monasteries or Ling in Lhasa; Gandan, Depung and Serra
near Lhasa; and Tashilhunpo.
It has often been noticed that the services performed by the
Gelugpa[1066] and by the Roman Catholic Church are strangely
similar in appearance. Is this an instance of borrowing or of
convergence? On the one hand it is stated that there were Roman
missions in Amdo in Tsong-kha-pa's youth, and the resemblances are
such as would be natural if he had seen great celebrations of the mass
and taken hints. In essentials the similarity is small but in
externals such as the vestments and head-dresses of the officiants,
the arrangement of the choir, and the general _mise-en-scène_, it is
striking. On the other hand many points of resemblance in ceremonial,
though not all, are also found in the older Japanese sects, where
there can hardly be any question of imitating Christianity, and it
would seem that a ritual common to Tibet and Japan can be explained
only as borrowed from India. Further, although Tsong-kha-pa may have
come in contact with missionaries, is it likely that he had an
opportunity of seeing Roman rites performed with any pomp? It is in
the great choral services of the two religions that the resemblance is
visible, not in their simpler ritual. For these reasons, I think that
the debt of Lamaism to the Catholic Church must be regarded as not
proven, while admitting the resemblance to be so striking that we
should be justified in concluding that Tsong-kha-pa copied Roman
ceremonial, could it be shown that he was acquainted with it.
The life and ritual of the Lamas have often been described, and I need
not do more than refer the reader to the detailed account given by
Waddell in his _Buddhism of Tibet_ [1067], but it is noticeable that
the monastic system is organized on a larger scale and inspired by
more energy than in any other country. The monasteries of Tibet, if
inferior to those of Japan in the middle ages, are the greatest
Buddhist establishments now existing. For instance Depung has 7000
monks, Serra 5500 and Tashilhunpo 3800: at Urga in Mongolia there are
said to be 14,000. One is not surprised to hear that these
institutions are veritable towns with their own police and doubtless
the spirit of discipline learned in managing such large bodies of
monks has helped the Lamaist Church in the government of the country.
Also these monasteries are universities. Candidates for ordination
study a course of theology and are not received as novices or full
monks unless they pass successive examinations. In every monastery
there is a central temple in which the monks assemble several times a
day to chant lengthy choral offices. Of these there are at least five,
the first before dawn and the last at 7 p.m. Though the value of
Lamas' learning and ritual may be questioned, it is clear that many of
them lead strenuous lives in the service of a religion which, if
fantastic, still expresses with peculiar intensity the beliefs and
emotions of the Tibetans and Mongols and has forced men of violence to
believe that a power higher than their own is wielded by intellect and
asceticism.
There seems to be no difference between Tibetan and Mongolian Lamaism
in deities, doctrines or observances[1068]. Mongolian Lamas imitate
the usages of Tibet, study there when they can and recite their
services in Tibetan, although they have translations of the scriptures
in their own language. Well read priests in Peking have told me that
it is better to study the canon in Tibetan than in Mongol, because
complete copies in Mongol, if extant, are practically unobtainable.
The political and military decadence of the Mongols has been ascribed
by some authors to Lamaism and to the substitution of priestly for
warlike ideals. But such a substitution is not likely to have taken
place except in minds prepared for it by other causes and it does not
appear that the Moslims of Central Asia are more virile and vigorous
than the Buddhists. The collapse of the Mongols can be easily
illustrated if not explained by the fate of Turks and Tartars in the
Balkan Peninsula and Russia. Wherever the Turks are the ruling race
they endeavour to assert their superiority over all Christians, often
by violent methods. But when the positions are reversed and the
Christians become rulers as in Bulgaria, the Turks make no resistance
but either retire or acquiesce meekly in the new regime.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1057: See for instance the particulars given as to various
branches of the Nying-ma pa sect in _J.A.S.B._ 1882, pp. 6-14.]
[Footnote 1058: Urgyen-pa or Dzok-chen-pa.]
[Footnote 1059: Or Pemayangtse.]
[Footnote 1060: bKah-gDams-pa.]
[Footnote 1061: _Buddhism_, p. 70.]
[Footnote 1062: bKah-brGyud-pa.]
[Footnote 1063: Sandberg, _Handbook of Tibetan_, p. 207.]
[Footnote 1064: Authorities differ as to the name of the sect which
owns Himis and other monasteries in Ladak.]
[Footnote 1065: See for some account of him and specimens of his
poems, Sandberg, _Tibet and the Tibetans_, chap. XIII.]
[Footnote 1066: I do not know whether the ceremonies of the other
sects offer the same resemblance. Probably they have all imitated the
Gelugpa. Some authors attribute the resemblance to contact with
Nestorian Christianity in early times but the resemblance is
definitely to Roman costumes and ceremonies not to those of the
Eastern church. Is there any reason to believe that the Nestorian
ritual resembled that of western catholics?]
[Footnote 1067: See also Filchner, _Das Kloster Kumbum_, 1906.]
[Footnote 1068: Almost the only difference that I have noticed is that
whereas Tibetans habitually translate Indian proper names, Mongols
frequently use Sanskrit words, such as Manjuśrî, or slightly
modified forms such as Dara, Maidari ( = Târâ, Maitreya). The same
practice is found in the old Uigur translations. See _Bibl. Buddh._
XII. Tisastvustik. For an interesting account of contemporary Lamaism
in Mongolia see Binstead, "Life in a Khalkha Steppe Monastery,"
_J.R.A.S._ 1914, 847-900.]