ANNAM
The modern territory called Annam includes the ancient Champa, and it
falls within the French political sphere which includes Camboja. Of
Champa I have treated elsewhere in connection with Camboja, but Annam
cannot be regarded as the heir of this ancient culture. It represents
a southward extension of Chinese influence, though it is possible that
Buddhism may have entered it in the early centuries of our era either
by sea or from Burma.
At the present day that part of the French possessions which occupies
the eastern coast of Asia is divided into Tonkin, Annam and Cochin
China. The Annamites are predominant in all three provinces and the
language and religion of all are the same, except that Cochin China
has felt the influence of Europe more strongly than the others. But
before the sixteenth century the name Annam meant rather Tonkin and
the northern portion of modern Annam, the southern portion being the
now vanished kingdom of Champa.
Until the tenth century A.D.[900] Annam in this sense was a part of
the Chinese Empire, although it was occasionally successful in
asserting its temporary independence. In the troubled period which
followed the downfall of the T'ang dynasty this independence became
more permanent. An Annamite prince founded a kingdom called
Dai-cô-viêt[901] and after a turbulent interval there arose the Li
dynasty which reigned for more than two centuries (1009-1226 A.D.). It
was under this dynasty that the country was first styled An-nam:
previously the official designation of the land or its inhabitants was
Giao-Chi[902]. The Annamites were at this period a considerable
military power, though their internal administration appears to have
been chaotic. They were occasionally at war with China, but as a rule
were ready to send complimentary embassies to the Emperor. With
Champa, which was still a formidable antagonist, there was a continual
struggle. Under the Tran dynasty (1225-1400) the foreign policy of
Annam followed much the same lines. A serious crisis was created by
the expedition of Khubilai Khan in 1285, but though the Annamites
suffered severely at the beginning of the invasion, they did not lose
their independence and their recognition of Chinese suzerainty
remained nominal. In the south the Chams continued hostilities and,
after the loss of some territory, invoked the aid of China with the
result that the Chinese occupied Annam. They held it, however, only
for five years (1414-1418).
In 1428 the Li dynasty came to the throne and ruled Annam at least in
name until the end of the eighteenth century. At first they proved
vigorous and capable; they organized the kingdom in provinces and
crushed the power of Champa. But after the fifteenth century the kings
became merely titular sovereigns and Annamite history is occupied
entirely with the rivalry of the two great families, Trinh and Nguyen,
who founded practically independent kingdoms in Tonkin and
Cochin-China respectively. In 1802 a member of the Nguyen family made
himself Emperor of all Annam but both he and his successors were
careful to profess themselves vassals of China.
Thus it will be seen that Annam was at no time really detached from
China. In spite of political independence it always looked towards the
Chinese Court and though complimentary missions and nominal vassalage
seem unimportant, yet they are significant as indicating admiration
for Chinese institutions. Between Champa and Annam on the other hand
there was perpetual war: in the later phases of the contest the
Annamites appear as invaders and destroyers. They seem to have
disliked the Chams and were not disposed to imitate them. Hence it is
natural that Champa, so long as it existed as an independent kingdom,
should mark the limit of _direct_ Indian influence on the mainland of
Eastern Asia, though afterwards Camboja became the limit. By direct, I
do not mean to exclude the possibility of transmission through Java or
elsewhere, but by whatever route Indian civilization came to
Champa, it brought its own art, alphabet and language, such
institutions as caste and forms of Hinduism and Buddhism which had
borrowed practically nothing from non-Indian sources. In Annam, on the
other hand, Chinese writing and, for literary purposes, a form of the
Chinese language were in use: the arts, customs and institutions were
mainly Chinese: whatever Buddhism can be found was imported from China
and is imperfectly distinguished from Taoism: of Hinduism there are
hardly any traces[903].
The Buddhism of Annam is often described as corrupt and decadent.
Certainly it would be vain to claim for it that its doctrine and
worship are even moderately pure or primitive, but it cannot be said
to be moribund. The temples are better kept and more numerously
attended than in China and there are also some considerable
monasteries. As in China very few except the monks are exclusive
Buddhists and even the monks have no notion that the doctrines of
Lao-tzŭ and Confucius are different from Buddhism. The religion of
the ordinary layman is a selection made according to taste from a mass
of beliefs and observances traceable to several distinct sources,
though no Annamite is conscious that there is anything incongruous in
this heterogeneous combination. This fusion of religions, which is
more complete even than in China, is illustrated by the temples of
Annam which are of various kinds[904]. First we have the Chua or
Buddhist temples, always served by bonzes or nuns. They consist of
several buildings of which the principal contains an altar bearing a
series of images arranged on five or six steps, which rise like the
tiers of a theatre. In the front row there is usually an image of the
infant Śâkyamuni and near him stand figures of At-nan (Ănanda)
and Muc-Lien (Maudgalyâyana). On the next stage are Taoist deities
(the Jade Emperor, the Polar Star, and the Southern Star) and on the
higher stages are images representing (_a_) three Buddhas[905] with
attendants, (_b_) the Buddhist Triratna and (_c_) the three
religions, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. But the arrangement of
the images is subject to much variation and the laity hardly know who
are the personages represented. At side altars there are generally
statues of Quan-Am, guardian deities, eminent bonzes and other
worthies. Representations of hell are also common. Part of the temple
is generally set apart for women who frequent it in the hope of
obtaining children by praying to Quan-Am and other goddesses. Buddhist
literature is sometimes printed in these Chua and such works as the
Amitâyurdhyânasûtra and collections of Dhâraṇîs are commonly placed
on the altars.
Quan-Am (Kuan-Yin) is a popular deity and the name seems to be given
to several goddesses. They would probably be described as incarnations
of Avalokita, if any Annamite were to define his beliefs (which is not
usual), but they are really legendary heroines who have left a
reputation for superhuman virtue. One was a daughter of the Emperor
Chuang of the Chou dynasty. Another (Quan-Am-Thi-Kinh), represented as
sitting on a rock and carrying a child in her arms, was a much
persecuted lady who passed part of her life disguised as a bonze. A
third form, Quan-Am-Toa-Son, she who dwells on the mountains, has an
altar in nearly every temple and is specially worshipped by women who
wish for sons. At Hanoi there is a small temple, rising on one column
out of the water near the shore of a lake, like a lotus in a tank,
and containing a brass image of Quan-Am with eight arms, which is
evidently of Indian origin. Sometimes popular heroines such as Cao
Tien, a princess who was drowned, are worshipped without (it would
seem) being identified with Quan-Am.
But besides the Chua there are at least three other kinds of religious
edifices: (i) Dinh. These are municipal temples dedicated to beings
commonly called genii by Europeans, that is to say, superhuman
personages, often, but not always, departed local worthies, who for
one reason or another are supposed to protect and supervise a
particular town or village. The Dinh contains a council room as well
as a shrine and is served by laymen. The genius is often represented
by an empty chair and his name must not be pronounced within the
temple. (ii) Taoist deities are sometimes worshipped in special
temples, but the Annamites do not seem to think that such worship is
antagonistic to Buddhism or even distinct from it. (iii) Temples
dedicated to Confucius (Van mien) are to be found in the towns, but
are generally open only on certain feast days, when they are visited
by officials. Sometimes altars dedicated to the sage may be found in
natural grottoes or other picturesque situations. Besides these
numerous elements, Annamite religion also includes the veneration of
ancestors and ceremonies such as the worship of Heaven and Earth
performed in imitation of the Court of Peking. To this must be added
many local superstitions in which the worship of animals, especially
the tiger, is prominent. But a further analysis of this composite
religion does not fall within my province.
There is little to be said about the history of Buddhism in Annam, but
native tradition places its introduction as late as the tenth
century[906]. Buddhist temples usually contain a statue of Phat
To[907] who is reported to have been the first adherent of the faith
and to have built the first pagoda. He was the tutor of the Emperor
Li-Thai-To who came to the throne in 1009. Phat-To may therefore have
been active in the middle of the tenth century and this agrees with
the statement that the Emperor Dinh Tien-Hoang Dê (968-979) was a
fervent Buddhist who built temples and did his best to make
converts[908]. One Emperor, Li Hué-Ton, abdicated and retired to a
monastery.
The Annals of Annam[909] record a discussion which took place before
the Emperor Thai-Tôn (1433-1442) between a Buddhist and a sorcerer.
Both held singularly mixed beliefs but recognized the Buddha as a
deity. The king said that he could not decide between the two sects,
but gave precedence to the Buddhists.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 900: The dates given are 111 B.C.-939 A.D.]
[Footnote 901: French scholars use a great number of accents and even
new forms of letters to transcribe Annamite, but since this language
has nothing to do with the history of Buddhism or Hinduism and the
accurate orthography is very difficult to read, I have contented
myself with a rough transcription.]
[Footnote 902: This is the common orthography, but Chiao Chih would be
the spelling according to the system of transliterating Chinese
adopted in this book.]
[Footnote 903: It is said that the story of the Râmâyana is found in
Annamite legends (_B.E.F.E.O._ 1905, p. 77), and in one or two places
the Annamites reverence statues of Indian deities.]
[Footnote 904: The most trustworthy account of Annamite religion is
perhaps Dumoutier, _Les Cultes Annamites_, Hanoi, 1907. It was
published after the author's death and consists of a series of notes
rather than a general description. See also Diguet, _Les Annamites_,
1906, especially chap. VI.]
[Footnote 905: Maitreya is called Ri-lac = Chinese Mi-le. The
equivalence of the syllables _ri_ and _mi_ seems strange, but certain.
Cf. A-ri-da = Amida or O-mi-to.]
[Footnote 906: Pelliot (Meou-Tseu, traduit et annoté, in _T'oung Pao_,
vol. XIX. p. 1920) gives reasons for thinking that Buddhism was
prevalent in Tonkin in the early centuries of our era, but, if so, it
appears to have decayed and been reintroduced. Also at this time
Chiao-Chih may have meant Kuang-tung.]
[Footnote 907: Diguet, _Les Annamites_, p. 303.]
[Footnote 908: Maybon et Russier, _L'Histoire d'Annam_, p. 45.]
[Footnote 909: Dumoutier, _Les Cultes Annamites_, p. 58.]