covered with green bushes of euphorbia; lions and hyænas are common. In
the lower country of the Danakils, palms abound, with acacias and aloes;
and the wart-hog, small antelopes and guinea-fowls, are among the
animals. Crocodiles and hippopotami haunt the streams and marshes. On
the plains are the Koodoo antelope and zebra; ostriches are hunted below
the Galla country, and leopards and buffaloes abound.
Taking the vegetation from the north southwards, not a few conspicuous
plants are distinctive of successive districts; thus, the date-palm, the
papyrus, and the bean of Pythygoras may be cited for Egypt Proper; the
doom, the coffee, and acacias to the more southern provinces. Some
curious affinities with South African vegetation are indicated by
Abyssinian species of pelargonium and protea.
There is a close relationship between the natural history of the Eastern
African region and that of Arabia; so near, indeed, that in many
respects we may regard these provinces as subdivisions of one great
region. Many of the most striking plants are common to both, and the
same may be said of not a few characteristic animals. The Red Sea, that
separates them, proves, when its animal and vegetable inhabitants are
explored, to be only a colony of the great Indian Ocean marine province,
the most extensive of all the natural-history regions of the ocean, and
the most varied in its contents. These are remarkable for brilliancy of
colouring and beauty or singularity of shape and sculpture, as well as
for the richness of the fauna in the number of generic and specific
types.
WESTERN AFRICA.
Western Africa within the tropics constitutes in many respects one vast
natural-history province, extending far into the interior and towards
the eastern coasts. This wide-spreading region is capable of being
subdivided, and the steaming districts along the coast from Senegal to
Congo present numerous peculiarities that are not seen in the inland
portions. These latter again vary considerably in features of surface,
and the animal and vegetable population must change more or less
accordingly. But throughout this portion of the African continent there
range not a few of the large quadrupeds, and doubtless of the smaller
ones and other tribes along with them. The African elephant, the
hippopotamus, the two-horned rhinoceros, the phascochœrus, or wart-hog,
the lion and the jackal, are examples; although the Great Desert cuts
off the range northwards of several of them. Among birds, the ostrich
and the _Vultur kolbii_ are instances.
The most conspicuous zoological peculiarities of this region are
manifested by quadrumanous and edentate quadrupeds. This is a country of
monkeys, and of very remarkable ones. The thumbless apes (_Colobus_) are
concentrated here. The various herds of _Cercopithecus_ are chiefly
members of this region: the mandrills are all belonging to it, and the
baboons abound. The African orang-outang is a native of Guinea; and
three species of chimpanzee are found on the same line of coast.
The edentata of this region are confined to the countries in the
neighbourhood of the coast, and though few are highly peculiar. There
are species of the genus _Manis_, the scaly ant-eater, or pangolin. In
the presence of these extraordinary quadrupeds along the western shores
of Africa we seem to have a relation with the New World shadowed out;
one that is also indicated by a few analogies among the plants. At the
same time, by similar indications, a relationship of analogy with the
Indian region may be traced. Thus, there are curious resemblances
between the flora of Congo, that of India, and of the islands of the
Indian Ocean. These similitudes are the more remarkable since the
physical features of the country between the western and eastern coasts
are such as scarcely to admit of any continuity of like vegetation or
animal population. With the flora of South Africa that of the west has
but very slight connection.
A number of antelopes, though as we go northwards the species are less
numerous, manifest the distinguishing feature of the group of African
ruminants. In our group the harnessed and Isabella antelopes typify this
character.
The vegetation of intertropical Africa varies considerably in different
districts, on account of the striking difference in the mineral
constitution of the soil, and the elemental peculiarities of the seaward
and inland districts. Palms of several kinds are abundant along the
coast countries, and among them the most prominent is the _Elais
guiniensis_, a palm-oil species. As a group, however, although playing
so prominent a part in the West African landscape, the number of kinds
of palm is small, when compared with the vast number of individuals. The
_Pandanus candelabrum_, one of the screw-palms, is a conspicuous tree.
Mangroves clothe the sides of swamps and the deltas of rivers. Towards
the inner country the great _Adansonia digitata_ or _Baobab_, the
largest tree in the world, becomes frequent, and ranges westwards to the
boundaries of Abyssinia. The great tree-cotton, or _Bombax_, is also
characteristic. Among the herbaceous plants that range along the western
coasts of Africa, one of the best known and prettiest is the _Gloriosa
superba_. _Cinchoniaceæ_ and _Malvaceæ_ are among the tribes of plants
that attain a considerable development.
SOUTH AFRICA.
There are few tracts of land on the earth’s surface so distinctly marked
by zoological and botanical peculiarities, and by a striking aspect of
fauna and flora as South Africa. Its mountains--and they attain
considerable elevation, as much as 10,000 feet in some instances--its
low grounds, sandy plains, and deserts called Karoos, if not everywhere
adorned with a luxuriant vegetation, are singularly prolific in
remarkable and interesting plants, and are the resorts of numerous
quadrupeds, many of them of considerable dimensions. In its mammalia and
its flowering plants we recognise the prominent and distinctive
natural-history characteristics of the region.
One baboon, _Cynocephalus porcarius_, and a _Cercopithecus_, are the
only monkeys of the Cape region, and though peculiar as species, are
rather to be regarded as links of the fauna of the South African with
the general fauna of Africa. In this light, too, must the carnivora be
regarded, although numerous and prominent; for the most conspicuous, the
lion for example, are common to a vast extent of the African continent.
The hyæna genus, however, may be regarded as having its metropolis in
this province. Some of the conspicuous pachyderms also appertain to the
general African group, such as the elephant, the hippopotamus, the
two-horned rhinoceros, the Ethiopic hog, and the zebra. Here is the
country of the gnoos and other antelopes, of quaggas, lions following in
the track; some of the antelopes may be seen in herds of hundreds.
Here we are out of the region of palms; nor are large trees of any kind
very distinctive of the South African flora. There are no vast forests,
arborescent plants are scarce, but instead, there are great tracts of
bush, composed, in the Caffrarian districts, for the most part of
succulent and thorny shrubs; leafless columnar euphorbias, some of them
shaped like great candelabra and occasionally towering to thirty or
forty feet, and fleshy aloes with threatening weapon-like leaves and
tall standards of handsome flowers, give a strange and bizarre aspect to
the Bush-country vegetation, and cover with prickly thickets the steep
sides of the ravines that furrow and separate the long flat ridges of
hills. Here grow the _Zamia horrida_, the crane-like Strelitzia,
prickly kinds of acacia, everlasting-flowers in great variety, and
ice-plants. One of the latter, the _Mesembryanthemum edule_, or
Hottentot fig, is the only native fruit, and a bad one at best.
The mention of Cape plants at once suggests to the lover of flowers a
number of beautiful natives of the South African region: Cape lilies,
various sorts of corn-flags, ixias, lobelias, oxalidiæ, peculiar
orchids, pelargoniums, diosmeas, polygalas, and heaths, of the last in
wondrous variety. The curious little pachydermatous quadruped, _Hyrax
capensis_, is a specific peculiarity; so also is the quagga. It is the
group of the hollow-formed ruminants that give the grand distinguishing
feature to the South African fauna. The beautiful family of antelopes
attains its maximum here, nearly one half of the total number of species
being South African. The gnoo, the eland, the harte-beest and
spring-bok, are some of those most familiar on account of their
dimensions or beauty: the abundance of antelopes compensates for the
absence of deer. The Cape buffalo (_Bos caffer_) is another distinctive
ruminant; and the giraffe, though ranging far to the north, is a
conspicuous member of the southern fauna. The sand-flats around the Cape
are bored by peculiar moles of the genus Bathyergus, and one of the most
curious of African animals, the Cape ant-eater, _Orycteropus capensis_,
one of the few members of its order existing in the Old World, is
confined to the province from which it derives its specific appellation.
The ornithological peculiarities of the Cape are not so striking.
Many of the animals mentioned are now becoming scarce, or to be seen
only far in the interior. The elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus are
rapidly disappearing through the persecution of the hunter. On the high
open table-lands of the interior immense multitudes of quadrupeds
congregate especially; and the proteaceæ, equally distinctive of this
flora, abound most in the western districts of the colony, and are
especially numerous on the sandy plains. One of the most beautiful of
orchids, the famous _Disa grandiflora_, is a plant of Table Mountain.
Among remarkable plants may be mentioned, the waxberry, _Myrsia
cordifolia_, a shrub, the berries of which are thickly coated with wax;
and the well-known monstrous-looking _Testudinaria elephantipes_. The
much-cultivated and familiar great White Arum, _Calla Æthiopica_, is
common in wet places.
It is worthy of note, that whilst the animals, both quadrupeds and
birds, of South Africa have many relations with those of Western Africa
within the tropics, the plants belong to completely a different series,
and are connected with the flora of the rest of Africa only by eastern
relations. In some features of the flora there is a curious analogy
manifested with the Australian types.
The coasts of the Cape have a marine population as peculiar and striking
in their way as the terrestrial, and constitute a well-marked
sea-province, the eastern limits of which are to the south of Natal,
where the great Indo-Pacific region meets that of the Cape. Among
shell-fish, the limpet tribe has its chief congregation of species here.
WESTERN OR NEW WORLD.
ANTARCTIC AMERICA.
We enter the NEW WORLD by the cold regions of the extreme south--the
home of penguins. Here we find forms of animal and vegetable life
representative of those that inhabit the Arctic regions and their
borders. The most southerly arborescent vegetation is seen in Hermit
Island near Cape Horn, where stunted forests of antarctic and evergreen
beeches grow. The same phenomenon is exhibited of multiplication of
individuals and paucity of species to which attention will be called in
the notice of the extreme north. The southernmost of all flowering
plants is a grass, the _Aira antarctica_, a native of the South Shetland
islands.
SOUTHERNMOST REGIONS.
By the Chilian auraucarias, the fuchsias, calceolarias, and petunias,
some of the peculiar features of the vegetation of the southernmost
regions of South America are indicated. Many of our most beautiful and
familiar garden plants come from these provinces. In the high regions of
the Andes of Chili, as well as further towards the equator, lives the
chinchilla, famous for its fur, at an elevation of between 12,000 and
14,000 feet--guinea-pigs are found of peculiar kinds, and the llama,
which ranges to a height of 1800 feet.
TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
The rich regions of Brazil and Tropical America are typified by some of
their most characteristic vegetable forms, and by not a few of the most
striking members of their mammalian fauna, as well as birds of exquisite
hues and strange shapes. Among the latter, the toucans and humming birds
are singularly striking. This is the great central home of the New World
monkeys, contrasting with and representative of those of the Old World,
but constituting an entirely distinct group. Their nostrils placed far
apart and flattened, the number of their teeth, and the prehensile
tail,--a fifth hand,--with which so many of them are endowed, give them
an aspect very different from their relatives over the Atlantic. In the
vast forests of Brazil they revel among the palms, Barringtonias and
monkey pots, whilst, on the ground below, the giant ant-eater, and many
another creature equally strange, prowls around the shade. The jaguar,
puma, and ocelot, which take the place of the great cats of the Old
World, the agouti and capabara, the sloth and coati-mundi, all present
themselves in this compartment. The American tapir is here, and in the
more western portions of the ground, are placed crochet-deer, and the
_Rhea americana_, the ostrich of the west. The llama marks the region of
the Andes, and in the New World represents the camel of the Old.
CENTRAL AMERICA.
Birds of beautiful plumage, and vegetation of singular and fantastic
forms, mark the separating region of Central America. The cactus tribe
of plants, the yuccas, and the great aloe or rather agave give a
peculiar and striking aspect to this region. Yet of the larger forms of
animal life there is little to display. Before long we may show the
strange sea-cow, or manatee, as coming within the bounds of this
province, and a glance at the West Indian marine case will serve at once
to indicate the richness and beauty of the fauna of seas and shores. The
number and curious variety of its sponges, the elegance and rich
painting of its shell-fish, the odd shapes of its fishes, and the
presence of striking forms of reef-building corals, all, however,
different from those of the Indian seas, cannot fail to impress its
peculiarities on the thoughtful visitor.
Along the southern verge of this province is the country of that most
exquisite of water-lilies, the great _Victoria_: on secluded lakes,
among luxuriant forests, and in the reaches of the mighty rivers that
flow tranquilly among them, this beautiful plant flourishes indigenous.
TEMPERATE NORTH AMERICA.
Between the Central and the Arctic Provinces are the wooded regions of
NORTH AMERICA, where the vegetation of Canada passes into that of the
United States, and is bounded on the western side by Oregonian fauna. A
wide range has to be illustrated in a small space, and we are obliged to
bring together in close proximity the countries of the pines and the
palmettos. The Canadian porcupine, Wapiti deer, elk, beaver, raccoon,
Virginian opossum, and Virginian deer stand here as representatives for
the States and neighbouring countries. Shrew moles (Scalops aquaticus),
starnoses (Condylura cristata), musk-rats, bony pikes and limuli would
be effective additions, and highly characteristic. The fauna and flora
of the United States, though in great part peculiar, are in many of
their members curiously representative of the vegetable and animal life
in the corresponding portion of the Old World; in not a few instances
form replaces form. At the same time, the differences are not to be
overlooked, and in the presence of the opossum, of some of the fishes
and certain invertebrate animals, we seem to have indications of claims
to a superior antiquity on the part of the so-called New, over the
boasted Old World.
BARREN GROUNDS.
The _Barren grounds_ that skirt the polar regions of North America, and
which include the country to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and north
of the great lakes, constitute a region of low hills with rounded
summits, and more or less precipitous sides, separated by narrow
valleys. They are bare of trees, except near the margins of larger
rivers; a few stunted willows, dwarf birches and larches, are
occasionally met with, but the greater part of the surface is covered
with lichens only. The brown bear, the glutton, the ermine, the Canadian
otter, the wolf, the zibet, the arctic hare, the reindeer, and the
musk-ox, are characteristic quadrupeds. Between this district and the
northern shores of Lake Superior is a belt of wooded land, where the
elk, squirrel, beaver, &c., occur. On the prairie lands that belong to
the next section are the great bison or American buffalo, peculiar deer,
and the grisly bear. Towards the west, and along the Rocky Mountains are
found the American goat (only on the highest ridges), and the pretty
prong-horned antelope. The distribution of most of these large animals
is determined by the vegetation, and that in a great measure by the
disposition of the water-sheds.
ARCTIC REGIONS.
To realise our conceptions, we ought, before quitting the Geographical
Garden from the north, to find ourselves surrounded by masses of ice and
snow. Let us picture in our minds long lines of hoary coasts, the dark
rock occasionally breaking through its frosty covering, the deep green
waves tossing masses of ice, and bearing up towering and fantastic
icebergs, whose cleft and cavernous sides are beautiful with intense
blue shadows. Great whales sport among the waters, their black masses,
here and there, breaking the monotony of colours. Myriads of glancing
jellyfishes, iridescent beroes, and pearly molluscs, give animation to
the transparent waters. Flocks of sea-birds fly in every direction,
watching the fishes that supply them with abundant food; seals rest on
the icy platform, and nearer the land the great white bear, beautiful as
strong, prowls along the verge of the shore. A scene such as this cannot
be realised ever at Sydenham, but we can indicate some few of its
characteristic elements. The imagination of intelligent visitors must
supply the rest.
The Arctic Province is represented only in one geographical Court, that
of the Western or New World. The one indication must serve for all the
regions that border the icy seas. Indeed there is no forcing in this
arrangement, for the entire Arctic fauna is characterised by prevailing
monotony. Myriads of individuals of the prevailing species, mostly dull
in hue, or at least deficient in brilliant colouring, whether they
belong to the earth, the air, or the sea, compensate for the paucity of
different kinds. White and grey, in the air; dull browns in the sea, are
the prevailing tints. Some bright flowers during the summer season,
break the modest rule by their gaiety. Throughout the icy seas, from
Greenland round by Spitzbergen to Behring’s Straits, and along the
labyrinthine coast of Asiatic America to Greenland again, the same
marine animals are diffused. This is the region of the salmon genus, all
the species of which radiate, as it were, around the Arctic province.
By the polar bears and a group of Arctic birds an indication of this
northernmost of faunas is afforded. The various foxes of the Arctic
shores, the dogs of the Esquimaux, the walrus with its human head,
whalebone and finner whales, were their bulk admissible, would fill up
the group with more completeness. The reindeer serves to indicate the
boundary of the province, and stands as a representative of the verge of
these realms of ice and snow.
AUSTRALIA AND INDIAN ISLANDS.
The vegetation and much of the animal population of the Indian islands,
both on the land and in the sea, constitute a passage between the
floras and faunas of Asia, and those so exceedingly peculiar, when
regarded apart, of Australia. The group of islands connected with New
Guinea--mountainous, forest-clothed, hot and moist in their
climate--especially exhibit this passage. Spice-trees and numerous forms
of palms mark differences; the presence of casuarinæ, gum-trees, and
melaleucas, resemblances. A few species of Australian types are highly
suggestive of the same relation.
The ourang, the Malay tapir, and bears, and the flying-squirrels, with a
rich array of birds, illustrate the zoology of the Indian Archipelago;
while that of Australia and Tasmania are indicated by the kangaroos,
duck-billed platypus, Tasmanian wolf, and echidnas, with many of the
singular and strangely peculiar birds of this most remarkable zoological
province, where we seem to have the lowest conditions of the vertebrate
type, assembled as if to indicate a rudimentary stage in the world’s
history. The vegetation--typified here by Banksias and other proteaceous
shrubs, epacridiæ, gum-trees, and many more forms as striking and
peculiar--indicates a corner of the earth set apart.
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
[Illustration: GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
THE EXTINCT ANIMALS RESTORED BY B. WATERHOUSE HAWKINS. F.G.S. F.L.S.
PUBLISHED FOR THE CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY, BY BRADBURY & EVANS. 11,
BOUVERIE ST.]
GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS
OF THE
ANCIENT WORLD.
DESCRIBED BY
RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S.
THE ANIMALS CONSTRUCTED BY B. W. HAWKINS, F.G.S.
[Illustration]
CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY,
AND
BRADBURY & EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON.
1854.
BRADBURY AND EVANS,
PRINTERS TO THE CRYSTAL PALACE COMPANY,
WHITEFRIARS.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 5
THE SECONDARY ISLAND 7
CHALK FORMATION 9
THE MOSASAURUS 10
THE PTERODACTYLE 11
WEALDEN FORMATION 14
THE IGUANODON 14
THE HYLÆOSAURUS 17
OOLITE FORMATION 19
THE MEGALOSAURUS 19
PTERODACTYLES OF THE OOLITE 22
TELEOSAURUS 22
LIAS FORMATION 25
ENALIOSAURIA 25
THE ICHTHYOSAURUS 25
ICHTHYOSAURUS PLATYODON 29
ICHTHYOSAURUS TENUIROSTRIS 30
ICHTHYOSAURUS COMMUNIS 30
PLESIOSAURUS 31
PLESIOSAURUS MACROCEPHALUS 31
PLESIOSAURUS DOLICHODEIRUS 32
PLESIOSAURUS HAWKINSII 33
NEW RED SANDSTONE 35
BATRACHIA 35
LABYRINTHODON SALAMANDROIDES 36
LABYRINTHODON PACHYGNATHUS 38
DICYNODON 38
[Illustration]
GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
INTRODUCTION.
Before entering upon a description of the restorations of the Extinct
Animals, placed on the Geological Islands in the great Lake, a brief
account may be premised of the principles and procedures adopted in
carrying out this attempt to present a view of part of the annual
creation of former periods in the earth’s history.
Those extinct animals were first selected of which the entire, or nearly
entire, skeleton had been exhumed in a fossil state. To accurate
drawings of these skeletons an outline of the form of the entire animal
was added, according to the proportions and relations of the skin and
adjacent soft parts to the superficial parts of the skeleton, as yielded
by those parts in the nearest allied living animals. From such an
outline of the exterior, Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins prepared at once a
miniature model form in clay.
This model was rigorously tested in regard to all its proportions with
those exhibited by the bones and joints of the skeleton of the fossil
animal, and the required alterations and modifications were successively
made, after repeated examinations and comparisons, until the result
proved satisfactory.
The next step was to make a copy in clay of the proof model, of the
natural size of the extinct animal: the largest known fossil bone, or
part, of such animal being taken as the standard according to which the
proportions of the rest of the body were calculated agreeably with those
of the best preserved and most perfect skeleton. The model of the full
size of the extinct animal having been thus prepared, and corrected by
renewed comparisons with the original fossil remains, a mould of it was
prepared, and a cast taken from this mould, in the material of which the
restorations, now exposed to view, are composed.
There are some very rare and remarkable extinct animals of which only
the fossil skull and a few detached bones of the skeleton have been
discovered: in most of these the restoration has been limited to the
head, as, for example, in the case of the Mosasaurus; and only in two
instances--those, viz., of the Labyrinthodon and Dicynodon--has Mr.
Hawkins taken upon himself the responsibility of adding the trunk to the
known characters of the head, such addition having been made to
illustrate the general affinities and nature of the fossil, and the kind
of limbs required to produce the impressions of the footprints, where
these have been detected and preserved in the petrified sands of the
ancient sea-shores trodden by these strange forms of the Reptilian
class.
With regard to the hair, the scales, the scutes, and other modifications
of the skin, in some instances the analogy of the nearest allied living
forms of animals has been the only guide; in a few instances, as in that
of the Ichthyosaurus, portions of the petrified integument have been
fortunately preserved, and have guided the artist most satisfactorily in
the restoration of the skin and soft parts of the fins; in the case of
other reptiles, the bony plates, spines, and scutes have been discovered
in a fossil state, and have been, scrupulously copied in the attempt to
restore the peculiar tegumentary features of the extinct reptiles, as
_e.g._ in the Hylæosaurus.
In every stage of this difficult, and by some it may be thought,
perhaps, too bold, attempt to reproduce and present to human gaze and
contemplation the forms of animal life that have successively flourished
during former geological phases of time, and have passed away long ages
prior to the creation of man, the writer of the following brief notice
of the nature and affinities of the animals so restored feels it a duty,
as it is a high gratification to him, to testify to the intelligence,
zeal, and peculiar artistic skill by which his ideas and suggestions
have been realised and carried out by the talented director of the
fossil department, Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins. Without the combination of
science, art, and manual skill, happily combined in that gentleman, the
present department of the Instructive Illustrations at the Crystal
Palace could not have been realised.
THE SECONDARY ISLAND.
The most cursory observation of the surface of the earth shows that it
is composed of distinct substances, such as clay, chalk, lias,
limestone, coal, slate, sandstone, &c.; and a study of such substances,
their relative position and contents, has led to the conviction that
these external parts of the earth have acquired their present condition
gradually, under a variety of circumstances, and at successive periods,
during which many races of animated beings, distinct both from those of
other periods and from those now living, have successively peopled the
land and the waters; the remains of these creatures being found buried
in many of the layers or masses of mineral substances, forming the crust
of the earth.
The object of the Islands in the Geological Lake is to demonstrate the
order of succession, or superposition, of these layers or strata, and to
exhibit, restored in form and bulk, as when they lived, the most
remarkable and characteristic of the extinct animals and plants of each
stratum.
The series of mineral substances and strata represented in the smaller
island have been called by geologists “secondary formations,” because
they lie between an older series termed “primary,” and a newer series
termed “tertiary:” the term “formation” meaning any assemblage of rocks
or layers which have some character in common, whether of origin, age,
or composition.[43]
[43] Lyell, “Manual of Elementary Geology.”
Following the secondary formations as they descend in the earth, or
succeed each other from above downwards, and as they are shown,
obliquely tilted up out of their original level position from left to
right, in the Secondary Island, they consist: 1st, of the Chalk or
Cretaceous group; 2nd, the Wealden; 3rd, the Oolite; 4th, the Lias; and
5th, the New Red Sandstone.
THE CHALK.
The chalk formations or “cretaceous group of beds” include strata of
various mineral substances; but the white chalk which forms the cliffs
of Dover and the adjoining coasts, and the downs and chalk quarries of
the South of England, is the chief and most characteristic formation.
Chalk, immense as are the masses in which it has been deposited, owes
its origin to living actions; every particle of it once circulated in
the blood or vital juices of certain species of animals, or of a few
plants, that lived in the seas of the secondary period of geological
time. White chalk consists of carbonate of lime, and is the result of
the decomposition chiefly of coral-animals (_Madrepores_, _Millepores_,
_Flustra_, _Cellepora_, &c.), of sea-urchins (_Echini_), and of
shell-fishes (_Testacea_), and of the mechanical reduction, pounding,
and grinding of their shells. Such chalk-forming beings still exist, and
continue their operations in various parts of the ocean, especially in
the construction of coral reefs and islands.
Every river that traverses a limestone district carries into the sea a
certain proportion of caustic lime in solution: the ill effects of the
accumulation of this mineral are neutralised by the power allotted to
the above-cited sea-animals to absorb the lime, combine it with
carbonic-acid, and precipitate or deposit it in the condition of
insoluble chalk, or carbonate of lime.
The entire cretaceous series includes from above downwards:
Maestricht beds of yellowish chalk.
Upper white chalk with flints.
Lower white chalk without flints.
Upper green-sand.
Gault.
Lower green-sand and Kentish rag.
The best known and most characteristic large extinct animal of the chalk
formations is chiefly found in the uppermost and most recent division,
and is called
No. 1.--THE MOSASAURUS.
(_Mosasaurus Hoffmanni_, Hoffmann’s Mosasaur.)
Of this animal almost the entire skull has been discovered, but not
sufficient of the rest of the skeleton to guide to a complete
restoration of the animal. The head only, therefore, is shown, of the
natural size, at the left extremity of the Secondary Island.
The first or generic name of this animal is derived from the locality,
Maestricht, on the river Meuse (Lat. _Mosa_), in Germany, where its
remains have been chiefly discovered, and from the Greek, word _sauros_,
a lizard, to which tribe of animals it belongs. Its second name refers
to its discoverer, Dr. Hoffmann, of Maestricht, surgeon to the forces
quartered in that town in 1780. This gentleman had occupied his leisure
by the collection of the fossils from the quarries which were then
worked to a great extent at Maestricht for a kind of yellowish stone of
a chalky nature, and belonging to the most recent of the secondary class
of formations in geology. In one of the great subterraneous quarries or
galleries, about five hundred paces from the entrance, and ninety feet
below the surface, the quarrymen exposed part of the skull of the
Mosasaurus, in a block of stone which they were engaged in detaching. On
this discovery they suspended their work, and went to inform Dr.
Hoffmann, who, on arriving at the spot, directed the operations of the
men, so that they worked out the block without injury to the fossil; and
the doctor then, with his own hands, cleared away the matrix and exposed
the jaws and teeth, casts of which are shown in the cretaceous rock of
the Island.
This fine specimen, which Hoffmann had added with so much pains and care
to his collection, soon, however, became a source of chagrin to him. One
of the canons of the cathedral at Maestricht, who owned the surface of
the soil beneath which was the quarry whence the fossil had been
obtained, when the fame of the specimen reached him, pleaded certain
feudal rights to it. Hoffmann resisted, and the canon went to law. The
Chapter supported the canon, and the decree ultimately went against the
poor surgeon, who lost both his specimen and his money--being made to
pay the costs of the action. The canon did not, however, long enjoy
possession of the unique specimen. When the French army bombarded
Maestricht in 1795, directions were given to spare the suburb in which
the famous fossil was known to be preserved; and after the capitulation
of the town it was seized and borne off in triumph. The specimen has
since remained in the museum of the Garden of Plants at Paris.
This skull of the Mosasaurus measures four and a half feet long and two
and a half feet wide. The large pointed teeth on the jaws are very
conspicuous; but, in addition to these, the gigantic reptile had teeth
on a bone of the roof of the mouth (the pterygoid), like some of the
modern lizards. The entire length of the animal has been estimated at
about thirty feet. It is conjectured to have been able to swim well, and
to have frequented the sea in quest of prey: its dentition shows its
predatory and carnivorous character, and its remains have hitherto been
met with exclusively in the chalk formations. Besides the specimens from
St. Peter’s Mount, Maestricht, of which the above-described skull is the
most remarkable, fossil bones and teeth of the Mosasaurus have been
found in the chalk of Kent, and in the green-sand--a member of the
cretaceous series--in New Jersey, United States of America. No animal
like the Mosasaurus is now known to exist.
Nos. 2 & 3.--THE PTERODACTYLE.
Nos. 2 and 3 are restorations of a flying reptile or dragon, called
Pterodactyle, from the Greek words _pteron_, a wing, and _dactylos_, a
finger; because the wings are mainly supported by the outer finger,
enormously lengthened and of proportionate strength, which,
nevertheless, answers to the little finger of the human hand. The wings
consisted of folds of skin, like the leather wings of the bat; and the
Pterodactyles were covered with scales, not with feathers: the head,
though somewhat resembling in shape that of a bird, and supported on a
long and slender neck, was provided with long jaws, armed with teeth;
and altogether the structure of these extinct members of the reptilian
class is such as to rank them amongst the most extraordinary of all the
creatures yet discovered in the ruins of the ancient earth.
Remains of the Pterodactyle were first discovered, in 1784, by Prof.
Collini, in the lithographic slate of Aichstadt, in Germany, which slate
is a member of the oolitic formations: the species so discovered was at
first mistaken for a bird, and afterwards supposed to be a large kind of
bat, but had its true reptilian nature demonstrated by Baron Cuvier, by
whom it was called the _Pterodactylus longirostris_, or Long-beaked
Pterodactyle: it was about the size of a curlew.
A somewhat larger species--the _Pterodactylus macronyx_, or Long-clawed
Pterodactyle--was subsequently discovered by the Rev. Dr. Buckland, in
the lias formation of Lyme Regis: its wings, when expanded, must have
been about four feet from tip to tip. The smallest known species--the
_Pterodactylus brevirostris_, or Short-beaked Pterodactyle--was
discovered in the lithographic slate at Solenhofen, Germany, and has
been described by Professor Soemmering.
Remains of the largest known kinds of Pterodactyle have been discovered
more recently in chalk-pits, at Burham, in Kent. The skull of one of
these species--the _Pterodactylus Cuvieri_--was about twenty inches in
length, and the animal was upborne on an expanse of wing of probably not
less than eighteen feet from tip to tip. The restored specimen of this
species is numbered 3.
A second very large kind of Pterodactyle--the _Pterodactylus
compressirostris_, or Thin-beaked Pterodactyle--had a head from fourteen
to sixteen inches in length, and an expanse of wing, from tip to tip, of
fifteen feet. The remains of this species have also been found in the
chalk of Kent. From the same formation and locality a third large kind
of Pterodactyle, although inferior in size to the two foregoing, has
been discovered, called the _Pterodactylus conirostris_, and also--until
the foregoing larger kinds were discovered--_Pterodactylus giganteus_.
The long, sharp, conical teeth in the jaws of the Pterodactyles indicate
them to have preyed upon other living animals; their eyes were large, as
if to enable them to fly by night. From their wings projected fingers,
terminated by long curved claws, and forming a powerful paw, wherewith
the animal was enabled to creep and climb, or suspend itself from trees.
It is probable, also, that the Pterodactyles had the power of swimming;
some kinds, _e.g._, the _Pterodactylus Gemmingi_, had a long and stiff
tail. “Thus,” writes Dr. Buckland, “like Milton’s Fiend, all qualified
for all services and all elements, the creature was a fit companion for
the kindred reptiles that swarmed in the seas, or crawled on the shores
of a turbulent planet.
‘The Fiend,
O’er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare,
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,
And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.’
_Paradise Lost_, Book II.”
THE WEALDEN.
The Wealden is a mass of petrified clay, sand, and sandstone, deposited
from the fresh or brackish water of probably some great estuary, and
extending over parts of the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. This
fresh-water formation derives its name from the “Weald” or “Wold” of
Kent, where it was first geologically studied, and where it is exposed
by the removal of the chalk, which covers or overlies it, in other parts
of the South of England.
The Wealden is divided into three groups of strata, which succeed each
other in the following descending order:--
1st. Weald Clay, sometimes including thin beds of sand and shelly
limestone, forming beds of from 140 to 280 feet in depth or vertical
thickness.
2nd. Hastings Sand, in which occur some clays and calcareous grits,
forming beds of from 400 to 500 feet in depth.
3rd. Purbeck Beds, so called from being exposed chiefly in the Isle of
Purbeck, off the coast of Dorsetshire, where it forms the quarries of
the limestone for which Purbeck is famous: the beds of limestones and
marls are from 150 to 200 feet in depth.
Nos. 4 & 5.--THE IGUANODON.
(_Iguanodon Mantelli_, Conybeare.)
One afternoon, in the spring of 1822, an accomplished lady, the wife of
a medical practitioner, at Lewes, in Sussex, walking along the
picturesque paths of Tilgate Forest, discovered some objects in the
coarse conglomerate rock of the quarries of that locality, which, from
their peculiar form and substance, she thought would be interesting to
her husband, whose attention had been directed, during his professional
drives, to the geology and fossils of his neighbourhood.
The lady was Mrs. Mantell: her husband, the subsequently distinguished
geologist, Dr. Mantell,[44] perceived that the fossils discovered by his
wife were teeth, and teeth of a large and unknown animal.
[44] “The first specimens of the teeth were found by Mrs. Mantell in
the coarse conglomerate of the Forest, in the spring of
1822.”--Mantell, “Geology of the South-East of England,” 8vo, 1833, p.
268.
“As these teeth,” writes the doctor, “were distinct from any that had
previously come under my notice, I felt anxious to submit them to the
examination of persons whose knowledge and means of observation were
more extensive than my own. I therefore transmitted specimens to some of
the most eminent naturalists in this country and on the continent. But
although my communications were acknowledged with that candour and
liberality which constantly characterise the intercourse of scientific
men, yet no light was thrown upon the subject, except by the illustrious
Baron Cuvier, whose opinions will best appear by the following extract
from the correspondence with which he honoured me:--
“‘These teeth are certainly unknown to me; they are not from a
carnivorous animal, and yet I believe that they belong, from their
slight degree of complexity, the notching of their margins, and the thin
coat of enamel that covers them, to the order of reptiles.
“‘May we not here have a new animal!--a herbivorous reptile? And, just
as at the present time with regard to mammals (land-quadrupeds with warm
blood), it is amongst the herbivorous that we find the largest species,
so also with the reptiles at the remote period when they were the sole
terrestrial animals, might not the largest amongst them have been
nourished by vegetables?
“‘Some of the great bones which you possess may belong to this animal,
which, up to the present time, is unique in its kind. Time will confirm
or confute this idea, since it is impossible but that one day a part of
the skeleton, united to portions of jaws with the teeth, will be
discovered.’”
“These remarks,” Dr. Mantell proceeds to say, “induced me to pursue my
investigations with increased assiduity, but hitherto they have not been
attended with the desired success, no connected portion of the skeleton
having been discovered. Among the specimens lately connected, some,
however, were so perfect, that I resolved to avail myself of the
obliging offer of Mr. Clift (to whose kindness and liberality I hold
myself particularly indebted), to assist me in comparing the fossil
teeth with those of the recent Lacertæ in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons. The result of this examination proved highly
satisfactory, for in an Iguana which Mr. Stutchbury had prepared to
present to the College, we discovered teeth possessing the form and
structure of the fossil specimens.” (Phil. Trans., 1825, p. 180.) And he
afterwards adds:--“The name Iguanodon, derived from the form of the
teeth, (and which I have adopted at the suggestion of the Rev. W.
Conybeare,) will not, it is presumed, be deemed objectionable.” (Ib. p.
184.)
The further discovery which Baron Cuvier’s prophetic glance saw buried
in the womb of time, and the birth of which verified his conjecture that
some of the great bones collected by Dr. Mantell belonged to the same
animal as the teeth, was made by Mr. W. H. Bensted, of Maidstone, the
proprietor of a stone-quarry of the Shanklin-sand formation, in the
close vicinity of that town. This gentleman had his attention one day,
in May, 1834, called by his workmen to what they supposed to be
petrified wood in some pieces of stone which they had been blasting. He
perceived that what they supposed to be wood was fossil bone, and with a
zeal and care which have always characterised his endeavours to secure
for science any evidence of fossil remains in his quarry, he immediately
resorted to the spot. He found that the bore or blast by which these
remains were brought to light, had been inserted into the centre of the
specimen, so that the mass of stone containing it had been shattered
into many pieces, some of which were blown into the adjoining fields.
All these pieces he had carefully collected, and proceeding with equal
ardour and success to the removal of the matrix from the fossils, he
succeeded after a month’s labour in exposing them to view, and in
fitting the fragments to their proper places.
This specimen is now in the British Museum.
Many other specimens of detached bones, including vertebræ or parts of
the back-bone, especially that part resting on the hind limbs, and
called the “pelvis,” bones of the limbs, down to those that supported
the claws, together with jaws and teeth, which have since been
successively discovered, have enabled anatomists to reconstruct the
extinct Iguanodon, and have proved it to have been a herbivorous
reptile, of colossal dimensions, analogous to the diminutive Iguana in
the form of its teeth, but belonging to a distinct and higher order of
reptiles, more akin to the crocodiles. The same rich materials,
selecting the largest of the bones as a standard, have served for the
present restorations (Nos. 4 and 5) of the animal, as when alive: all
the parts being kept in just proportion to the standard bones, and the
whole being thus brought to the following dimensions:--
Total length, from the nose or muzzle to the end of
the tail 34 feet 9 inches.
Greatest girth of the trunk 20 „ 5 „
Length of the head 3 „ 6 „
Length of the tail 15 „ 6 „
The character of the scales is conjectural, and the horn more than
doubtful, though attributed to the Iguanodon by Dr. Mantell and most
geologists.
This animal probably lived near estuaries and rivers, and may have
derived its food from the _Clathrariæ_, _Zamiæ_, _Cycades_, and other
extinct trees, of which the fossil remains abound in the same formations
as those yielding the bones and teeth of the Iguanodon.
These formations are the Wealden and the Neocomian or green-sand: the
localities in which the remains of the Iguanodon have been principally
found, are the Weald of Kent and Sussex: Horsham, in Sussex; Maidstone,
in Kent; and the Isle of Wight.
Restorations of the _Cycas_ and _Zamia_ are placed, with the Iguanodon,
on the Wealden division of the Secondary Island.
No. 6.--THE HYLÆOSAURUS. (_Hylæosaurus Owenii._)
The animal, so called by its discoverer, Dr. Mantell, belongs to the
same highly organised order of the class of reptiles as the Iguanodon,
that, viz., which was characterised by a longer and stronger sacrum and
pelvis, and by larger limbs than the reptiles of the present day
possess; they were accordingly better fitted for progression on dry
land, and probably carried their body higher and more freely above the
surface of the ground.
Visiting, in the summer of 1832, a quarry in Tilgate Forest, Dr. Mantell
had his attention attracted to some fragments of a large mass of stone,
which had recently been broken up, and which exhibited traces of
numerous pieces of bone. The portions of the rock, which admitted of
being restored together, were cemented, and then the rock was chiselled
from the fossil bones, which consisted of part of the back-bone or
vertebral column, some ribs, the shoulder bones called scapula and
coracoid, and numerous long angular bones or spines which seemed to have
supported a lofty serrated or jagged crest, extended along the middle of
the back, as in some of the small existing lizards, _e.g._, the Iguana:
cut No. 6. Many small dermal bones were also found, which indicate the
Hylæosaurus to have been covered by hard tuberculate scales, like those
of some of the Australian lizards, called _Cyclodus_.
This character of the skin, and the serrated crest, are accurately given
in the restoration, the major part of which, however, is necessarily at
present conjectural, and carried out according to the general analogies
of the saurian form. The size is indicated with more certainty according
to the proportions of the known vertebræ and other bones.
[Illustration: No. 6. Diagram of the Slab containing the Bones of
Hylæosaurus.]
THE OOLITE.
The division of the secondary formations, called “Oolite,” takes its
name from the most characteristic of its constituents, which is a
variety of limestone composed of numerous small grains, resembling the
“roe” or eggs of a fish, whence the term, (from the Greek _oon_, an egg,
_lithos_, a stone). The oolite, however, includes a great series of beds
of marine origin, which, with an average breadth of thirty miles, extend
across England, from Yorkshire in the north-east to Dorsetshire in the
south-west.
The oolite series lies below the Wealden, and where this is wanting,
below the chalk, and consists of the following subdivisions, succeeding
each other in the descending order:--
OOLITE.
Upper. {Portland stone and sand.
{Kimmeridge clay.
Middle. {Coral rag.
{Oxford clay.
{Cornbrash and forest marble.
Lower. {Great oolite and Stonesfield slate.
{Fuller’s earth.
{Inferior oolite.
Upon the portion of the island representing the oolite series, the most
conspicuous of the restored animals of that period is--
No. 7.--THE MEGALOSAURUS.
The Megalosaurus, as its name implies (compounded by its discoverer, Dr.
Buckland, from the Greek _megas_, great, and _sauros_, lizard), was a
lizard-like reptile of great size, “of which,” writes Dr. Buckland,
“although no skeleton has yet been found entire, so many perfect bones
and teeth have been discovered in the same quarries, that we are nearly
as well acquainted with the form and dimensions of the limbs as if they
had been found together in a single block of stone.”
The restoration of the animal has been accordingly effected, agreeably
with the proportions of the known parts of the skeleton, and in harmony
with the general characters of the order of reptiles to which the
Megalosaurus belonged. This order--the Dinosauria (Gr. _deinos_,
terribly great _sauros_, a lizard)--is that to which the two foregoing
huge reptiles of the Wealden series belong, viz., the Iguanodon and
Hylæosaurus, and is characterised by the modifications already
mentioned, that fitted them for more efficient progression upon dry
land. The Iguanodon represented the herbivorous section of the order,
the Hylæosaurus appears, from its teeth, to have been a mixed feeder,
but the Megalosaurus was decidedly carnivorous, and, probably, waged a
deadly war against its less destructively endowed congeners and
contemporaries.
[Illustration: No. 7. Megalosaurus.]
Baron Cuvier estimated the Megalosaurus to have been about fifty feet in
length; my own calculations, founded on more complete evidence than had
been at the Baron’s command, reduce its size to about thirty-five
feet:[45] but with the superior proportional height and capacity of
trunk, as contrasted with the largest existing crocodiles, even that
length gives a most formidable character to this extinct predatory
reptile.
[45] “Report of British Fossil Reptiles,” 1841, p. 110.
As the thigh-bone (_femur_) and leg-bone (_tibia_) measure each nearly
three feet, the entire hind-leg, allowing for the cartilages of the
joints, must have attained a length of two yards: a bone of the foot
(metatarsal) thirteen inches long, indicates that part, with the toes
and claws entire, to have been at least three feet in length. The form
of the teeth shows the Megalosaurus to have been strictly carnivorous,
and viewed as instruments for providing food for so enormous a reptile,
the teeth were fearfully fitted to the destructive office for which they
were designed. They have compressed conical sharp-pointed crowns, with
cutting and finely serrated anterior and posterior edges; they appear
straight, as seen when they had just protruded from the socket, but
become bent slightly backwards in the progress of growth, and the fore
part of the crown, below the summit, becomes thick and convex.
A minute and interesting description of these teeth will be found in Dr.
Buckland’s admirable “Bridgewater Treatise” (vol. i. p. 238), from which
he concludes that the teeth of the Megalosaurus present “a combination
of contrivances analogous to those which human ingenuity has adopted in
the construction of the knife, the sabre, and the saw.” The fossils
which brought to light the former existence of this most formidable
reptile, were discovered in 1823, in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield,
near Oxford, and were described by Dr. Buckland, in the volume of the
“Geological Transactions” for the year 1824.
Remains of the Megalosaurus have since been discovered in the “Bath
oolite,” which is immediately below the Stonesfield slate, and in the
“Cornbrash,” which lies above it. Vertebræ, teeth, and some bones of the
extremities have been discovered in the Wealden of Tilgate Forest, Kent,
and in the ferruginous sand, of the same age, near Cuckfield, in Sussex.
Remains of the Megalosaurus also occur in the Purbeck limestone at
Swanage Bay, and in the oolite in the neighbourhood of Malton, in
Yorkshire.
Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins’s restoration, according to the proportions
calculated from the largest portions of fossil bones of the Megalosaurus
hitherto obtained, yields a total length of the animal, from the muzzle
to the end of the tail, of thirty-seven feet; the length of the head
being five feet, the length of the tail fifteen feet; and the greatest
girth of the body twenty-two feet six inches.
Nos. 8 & 9.--PTERODACTYLES OF THE OOLITE.
To the right of the Hylæosaurus, on the rock representing the greater
oolite formation, are restorations of species of Pterodactyle
(_Pterodactylus Bucklandi_, No. 9), smaller than and distinct from those
of the chalk formations. The remains of Buckland’s Pterodactyle are
found pretty abundantly in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, near
Oxford.
Nos. 10 & 11.--TELEOSAURUS.
On the shore beneath the overhanging cliff of oolitic rock are two
restorations, Nos. 10 and 11, of a large extinct kind of crocodile, to
which the long and slender-jawed crocodile of the Ganges, called
“Gaviàl” or “Gharriàl” by the Hindoos, offers the nearest resemblance at
the present day. Remains of the ancient extinct British gavials have
been found in most of the localities where the oolitic formations occur,
and very abundantly in the lias cliffs near Whitby, in Yorkshire. The
name Teleosaurus (_telos_, the end, _sauros_, a lizard), was compounded
from the Greek by Professor Geoffroy St. Hilaire, for a species of these
fossil gavials, found by him in the oolite stone at Caen, in Normandy,
and has reference to his belief that they formed one--the
earliest--extreme of the crocodilian series, as this series has been
successively developed, in the course of time on our planet.
The jaws are armed with numerous long, slender, sharp-pointed, slightly
curved teeth, indicating that they preyed on fishes, and the young or
weaker individuals of co-existing reptiles. The nostril is situated more
at the end of the upper jaw than in the modern gavial: the fore-limbs
are shorter, and the hind ones longer and stronger than in the gavial,
which indicates that the Teleosaur was a better swimmer; the vertebræ or
bones of the back are united by slightly concave surfaces, not
interlocked by cup and ball joints as in the modern crocodiles, whence
it would seem that the Teleosaur lived more habitually in the water, and
less seldom moved on dry land; and, as its fossil remains have been
hitherto found only in the sedimentary deposits from the sea, it may be
inferred that it was more strictly marine than the crocodile of the
Ganges.
The first specimen of a Teleosaur that was brought to light was from the
“alum-schale” which forms one layer of the lofty lias cliffs of the
Yorkshire coast, near Whitby. A brief description, and figures, of this
incomplete fossil skeleton were published by Messrs. Wooller and
Chapman, in separate communications, in the 50th volume of the
“Philosophical Transactions,” in 1758. Captain Chapman observes, “it
seems to have been an alligator;” and Mr. Wooller thought “it resembled
in every respect the Gangetic gavial.” Thus, nearly a century ago, the
true nature of the fossil was almost rightly understood, and various
were the theories then broached to account for the occurrence of a
supposed Gangetic reptile in a petrified state in the cliffs of
Yorkshire. It has required the subsequent progress of comparative
anatomy to determine, as by the characters above defined, the essential
distinction of the Teleosaur from all known existing forms of
crocodilian reptiles.
Very abundant remains, and several species, of the extinct genus have
been subsequently discovered: but always in the oolitic and liassic
formations of the secondary series of rocks.
The oolitic group of rocks are very rich in remains of both plants and
animals: many reptiles of genera and species distinct from those here
restored have been recognised and determined by portions of the
skeleton. Extremely numerous are the remains of fishes, chiefly of an
almost extinct order (_Ganoidei_), characterised by hard, shining,
enamelled scales. But the most remarkable fossils are those which
indisputably prove the existence, during the period of the “Great” or
“Lower Oolite,” of insectivorous and marsupial mammalia--_i.e._, of
warm-blood quadrupeds, which, like the shrew or hedgehog, fed on
insects, and, like the opossum, had a pouch for the transport of the
young. The lower jaw of one of these earliest known examples of the
mammalian class, found in the Stonesfield slate, near Oxford, may be
seen at the British Museum, to which it was presented by J. W. Broderip,
Esq., F.R.S., by whom it was described in the “Zoological Journal,” vol.
iii., p. 408.
It is interesting to observe that the marsupial genera, to which the
above fossil quadruped, called _Phascolotherium_, was most nearly
allied, are now confined to New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land;
since it is in the Australian seas that is found the _Cestracion_, a
cartilaginous fish which has teeth that are most like those fossil teeth
called _Acrodus_ and _Psammodus_, so common in the oolite. In the same
Australian seas, also, near the shore, the beautiful shell-fish called
_Trigonia_ is found living, of which genus many fossil species occur in
the Stonesfield slate. Moreover, the Araucarian pines are now abundant,
together with ferns, in Australia, as they were in Europe in the oolitic
period.
THE LIAS.
“Lias” is an English provincial name adopted in geology, and applied to
a formation of limestone, marl, and petrified clay, which forms the base
of the oolite, or immediately underlies that division of secondary
rocks. The lias has been traced throughout a great part of Europe,
forming beds of a thickness varying from 500 to 1000 feet of the
above-mentioned substances, which have been gradually deposited from a
sea of corresponding extent and direction. The lias abounds with marine
shells of extinct species, and with remains of fishes that were clad
with large and hard shining scales. Of the higher or air-breathing
animals of that period, the most characteristic were the
ENALIOSAURIA.
The creatures called Enaliosauria or Sea-lizards (from the Greek
_enalios_, of the sea, and _sauros_, lizard), were vertebrate animals,
or had back bones, breathed the air like land quadrupeds, but were
cold-blooded, or of a low temperature, like crocodiles and other
reptiles. The proof that the Enaliosaurs respired atmospheric air
immediately, and did not breathe water by means of gills like fishes, is
afforded by the absence of the bony framework of the gill apparatus, and
by the presence, position, and structure of the air passages leading
from the nostrils, and also by the bony mechanism of the capacious chest
or thoracic-abdominal cavity: all of which characters have been
demonstrated by their fossil skeletons. With these characters the
Sea-lizards combined the presence of two pairs of limbs shaped like
fins, and adapted for swimming.
The Enaliosauria offer two principal modifications of their anatomical,
and especially their bony, structure, of which the two kinds grouped
together under the respective names of Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus
are the examples.
THE ICHTHYOSAURUS.
The genus Ichthyosaurus includes many species: of which three of the
best known and most remarkable have been selected for restoration to
illustrate this most singular of the extinct forms of animal life.
The name (from the Greek _ichthys_, a fish, and _sauros_, a lizard)
indicates the closer affinity of the Ichthyosaur, as compared with the
Plesiosaur, to the class of fishes. The Ichthyosaurs are remarkable for
the shortness of the neck and the equality of the width of the back of
the head with the front of the chest, impressing the observer of the
fossil skeleton with a conviction that the ancient animal must have
resembled the whale tribe and the fishes in the absence of any
intervening constriction or “neck.”
This close approximation in the Ichthyosaurs to the form of the most
strictly aquatic back-boned (vertebrate) animals of the existing
creation is accompanied by an important modification of the surfaces
forming the joints of the back-bone, each of which surfaces is hollow,
leading to the inference that they were originally connected together by
an elastic bag, or “capsule,” filled with fluid--a structure which
prevails in the class of fishes, but not in any of the whale or porpoise
tribe, nor in any, save a few of the very lowest and most fish-like, of
the existing reptiles.
With the above modifications of the head, trunk, and limbs, in relation
to swimming, there co-exist corresponding modifications of the tail. The
bones of this part are much more numerous than in the Plesiosaurs, and
the entire tail is consequently longer; but it does not show any of
those modifications that characterise the bony support of the tail in
fishes. The numerous “caudal vertebræ” of the Ichthyosaurus gradually
decrease in size to the end of the tail, where they assume a compressed
form, or are flattened from side to side, and thus the tail instead of
being short and broad, as in fishes, is lengthened out as in crocodiles.
The very frequent occurrence of a fracture of the tail, about one fourth
of the way from its extremity, in well-preserved and entire fossil
skeletons, is owing to that proportion of the end of the tail having
supported a tail-fin. The only evidence which the fossil skeleton of a
whale would yield of the powerful horizontal tail-fin characteristic of
the living animal, is the depressed or horizontally flattened form of
the bones supporting such fin. It is inferred, therefore, from the
corresponding bones of the Ichthyosaurus being flattened from side to
side, that it possessed a tegumentary tail-fin expanded in the vertical
direction. The shape of a fin composed of such perishable material is of
course conjectural, but from analogies, not necessary here to further
enlarge upon, it was probably like, or nearly like, that which the able
artist engaged in the restoration of the entire form of the animal has
given to it. Thus, in the construction of the principal swimming-organ
of the Ichthyosaurus we may trace, as in other parts of its structure, a
combination of mammalian (beast-like), saurian (lizard-like), and
piscine (fish-like) peculiarities. In its great length and gradual
diminution we perceive its saurian character; the tegumentary nature of
the fin, unsustained by bony fin-rays, bespeaks its affinity to the same
part in the mammalian whales and porpoises; whilst its vertical position
makes it closely resemble the tail-fin of the fish.
The horizontality of the tail-fin of the whale tribe is essentially
connected with their necessities as warm-blooded animals breathing
atmospheric air; without this means of displacing a mass of water in the
vertical direction, the head of the whale could not be brought with the
required rapidity to the surface to respire; but the Ichthyosaurs, not
being warm-blooded, or quick breathers, would not need to bring their
head to the surface so frequently, or so rapidly, as the whale; and,
moreover, a compensation for the want of horizontality of their tail-fin
was provided by the addition of a pair of hind-paddles, which are not
present in the whale tribe. The vertical fin was a more efficient organ
in the rapid cleaving of the liquid element, when the Ichthyosaurs were
in pursuit of their prey, or escaping from an enemy.
That the Ichthyosaurs occasionally sought the shores, crawled on the
strand, and basked in the sunshine, may be inferred from the bony
structure connected with their fore-fins, which does not exist in any
porpoise, dolphin, grampus, or whale; and for want of which, chiefly,
those warm-blooded, air-breathing, marine animals are so helpless when
left high and dry on the sands: the structure in question in the
Ichthyosaur is a strong osseous arch, inverted and spanning across
beneath the chest from one shoulder-joint to the other; and what is most
remarkable in the structure of this “scapular” arch, as it is called,
is, that it closely resembles, in the number, shape, and disposition of
its bones, the same part in the singular aquatic mammalian quadruped of
Australia, called _Ornithorhynchus_, _Platypus_, and Duck-mole. The
Ichthyosaurs, when so visiting the shore, either for sleep, or
procreation, would lie, or crawl prostrate, or with the belly resting or
dragging on the ground.
The most extraordinary feature of the head was the enormous magnitude of
the eye; and from the quantity of light admitted by the expanded pupil
it must have possessed great powers of vision, especially in the dusk.
It is not uncommon to find in front of the orbit (cavity for the eye),
in fossil skulls, a circular series of petrified thin bony plates,
ranged round a central aperture, where the pupil of the eye was placed.
The eyes of many fishes are defended by a bony covering consisting of
two pieces; but a compound circle of overlapping plates is now found
only in the eyes of turtles, tortoises, lizards, and birds. This curious
apparatus of bony plates would aid in protecting the eyeball from the
waves of the sea when the Ichthyosaurus rose to the surface, and from
the pressure of the dense element when it dived to great depths; and
they show, writes Dr. Buckland,[46] “that the enormous eye, of which
they formed the front, was an optical instrument of varied and
prodigious power, enabling the Ichthyosaurus to descry its prey at great
or little distances, in the obscurity of night, and in the depths of the
sea.”
[46] Op. cit., p. 174.
Of no extinct reptile are the materials for a complete and exact
restoration more abundant and satisfactory than of the Ichthyosaurus
they plainly show that its general external figure must have been that
of a huge predatory abdominal fish, with a longer tail, and a smaller
tail-fin: scale-less, moreover, and covered by a smooth, or finely
wrinkled skin analogous to that of the whale tribe.
The mouth was wide, and the jaws long, and armed with numerous pointed
teeth, indicative of a predatory and carnivorous nature in all the
species; but these differed from one another in regard to the relative
strength of the jaws, and the relative size and length of the teeth.
Masses of masticated bones and scales of extinct fishes, that lived in
the same seas and at the same period as the Ichthyosaurus, have been
found under the ribs of fossil specimens, in the situation where the
stomach of the animal was placed; smaller, harder, and more digested
masses, containing also fish-bones and scales have been found, bearing
the impression of the structure of the internal surface of the intestine
of the great predatory sea-lizard. These digested masses are called
“coprolites.”
In tracing the evidences of creative power from the earlier to the later
formations of the earth’s crust, remains of the Ichthyosaurus are first
found in the lower lias, and occur, more or less abundantly, through all
the superincumbent secondary strata up to, and inclusive of, the chalk
formations. They are most numerous in the lias and oolite, and the
largest and most characteristic species have been found in these
formations.
No. 12.--ICHTHYOSAURUS PLATYODON.
This most gigantic species, so called on account of the crown of the
tooth being more flattened than in other species, and having sharp
edges, as well as a sharp point, was first discovered in the has of Lyme
Regis, in Dorsetshire. Fossil remains now in the British Museum, and in
the museum of the Geological Society, fully bear out the dimensions
exhibited by the restoration of the animal as seen basking on the shore
between the two specimens of Long-necked Plesiosaurs. The head of this
species is relatively larger in proportion to the trunk, than in the
_Ichthyosaurus communis_ or _Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_: the lower jaw
is remarkably massive and powerful, and projects backwards beyond the
joint, as far as it does in the crocodile. In the skull of an individual
of this species, preserved in the apartments of the Geological Society
of London, the cavity for the eye, or orbit, measures, in its long
diameter, fourteen inches. The fore and hind paddles are large and of
equal size.
The lias of the valley of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, is the chief
grave-yard of the _Ichthyosaurus platyodon_; but its remains are pretty
widely distributed. They have been found in the lias of Glastonbury, of
Bristol, of Scarborough and Whitby, and of Bitton, in Gloucestershire;
some vertebræ, apparently of this species, have likewise been found in
the lias at Ohmden, in Germany.
No. 13.--ICHTHYOSAURUS TENUIROSTRIS.
Behind the _Ichthyosaurus platyodon_, is placed the restoration of the
_Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_, or Slender-snouted Fish-lizard. The most
striking peculiarity of this species is the great length and slenderness
of the jaw-bones, which, in combination with the large eye-sockets and
flattened cranium, give to the entire skull a form which resembles that
of a gigantic snipe or woodcock, with the bill armed with teeth. These
weapons, in the present species, are relatively more numerous, smaller,
and more sharply pointed than in the foregoing, and indicate that the
_Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_ preyed on a smaller kind of fish. The
fore-paddles are larger than the hind ones. In the museum of the
Philosophical Institution, at Bristol, there is an almost entire
skeleton of the present species which measures thirteen feet in length.
It was discovered in the lias of Lyme Regis. Portions of jaws and other
parts of the skeletons of larger individuals have been found fossil in
the lias near Bristol, at Barrow-on-Soar, in Leicestershire, and at
Stratford-on-Avon. The _Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_ has also left its
remains in the lias formation at Boll and Amburg, in Wirtemberg,
Germany.
No. 14.--ICHTHYOSAURUS COMMUNIS.
Of this species, which was the most “common,” when first discovered in
1824, but which has since been surpassed by other species in regard to
the known number of individuals, the head is restored, as protruded from
the water, to the right of the foregoing species.
The _Ichthyosaurus communis_ is characterised by its relatively large
teeth, with expanded, deeply-grooved bases, and round conical furrowed
crowns; the upper jaw contains, on each side, from forty to fifty of
such teeth. The fore-paddles are three times larger than the hind ones.
With respect to the size which it attained, the _Ichthyosaurus communis_
seems only to be second to the _Ichthyosaurus platyodon_. In the museum
of the Earl of Enniskillen, there is a fossil skull of the
_Ichthyosaurus communis_ which, measures, in length, two feet nine
inches, indicating an animal of at least twenty feet in length.
PLESIOSAURUS.
The discovery of this genus forms one of the most important additions
that geology has made to comparative anatomy. Baron Cuvier deemed “its
structure to have been the most singular, and its characters the most
monstrous, that had been yet discovered amid the ruins of a former
world.” To the head of a lizard it united the teeth of a crocodile, a
neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a serpent, a trunk and
tail having the proportions of an ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a
chameleon, and the paddles of a whale. “Such,” writes Dr. Buckland, “are
the strange combinations of form and structure in the Plesiosaurus, a
genus, the remains of which, after interment for thousands of years
amidst the wreck of millions of extinct inhabitants of the ancient
earth, are at length recalled to light by the researches of the
geologist, and submitted to our examination, in nearly as perfect a
state as the bones of species that are now existing upon the earth.”
(Op. cit., vol. v. p. 203).
The first remains of this animal were discovered in the lias of Lyme
Regis, about the year 1823, and formed the subject of the paper by the
Rev. Mr. Conybeare (now Dean of Llandaff), and Mr. (now Sir Henry) De la
Beche, in which the genus was established and named Plesiosaurus (from
the Greek words, _plesios_ and _sauros_, signifying “near” or “allied
to,” and “lizard”), because the authors saw that it was more nearly
allied to the lizard than was the Ichthyosaurus from the same formation.
The entire and undisturbed skeletons of several individuals, of
different species, have since been discovered, fully confirming the
sagacious restorations by the original discoverers of the
_Plesiosaurus_. Of these species three have been selected as the
subjects of Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins’s reconstructions and representations
of the living form of the strange reptiles.
No. 15.--PLESIOSAURUS MACROCEPHALUS.
The first of these has been called, from the relatively larger size of
the head, the _Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_ (No. 15), (Gr. _macros_,
long, _cephale_, head). The entire length of the animal, as indicated by
the largest remains, and as given in the restoration, is eighteen feet,
the length of the head being two feet, that of the neck six feet; the
greatest girth of the body yields seven feet.
[Illustration: No. 15. Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.]
Although Baron Cuvier and Dr. Buckland both rightly allude to the
resemblance of the fins or paddles of the Plesiosaur to those of the
whale, yet this most remarkable difference must be borne in mind, that,
whereas the whale tribe have never more than one pair of fins, the
Plesiosaurs have always two pairs, answering to the fore and hind limbs
of land quadrupeds; and the fore-pair of fins, corresponding to those in
the whale, differed by being more firmly articulated, through the medium
of collar-bones (clavicles), and of two other very broad and strong
bones (called coracoids), to the trunk (thorax), whereby they were the
better enabled to move the animal upon dry land.
Remains of the _Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_ have been discovered in the
lias of Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, and of Weston, in Somersetshire.
No. 16.--PLESIOSAURUS DOLICHODEIRUS.
Further to the left, on the shore of the Secondary Island, is a
restoration of the _Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus_, or Long-necked
Plesiosaurus (No. 16). The head in this remarkable species is smaller,
and the neck proportionally longer than in the _Plesiosaurus
macrocephalus_. The remains of the Long-necked Plesiosaur have been
found chiefly at Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. The well known specimen of
an almost entire skeleton, formerly in the possession of His Grace the
Duke of Buckingham, is now in the British Museum.
No. 17.--PLESIOSAURUS HAWKINSII.
The most perfect skeletons of the Plesiosaurus are those that have been
wrought out of the lias at Street, near Glastonbury, by Mr. Thomas
Hawkins, F.G.S., and which have been purchased by the trustees of the
British Museum. A restoration is given by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, at No.
17, of a species with characters somewhat intermediate between the
Large-headed and Long-necked Plesiosaurs, and which has been called,
after its discoverer, _Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii_.
The Plesiosaurs breathed air like the existing crocodiles and the whale
tribe, and appear to have lived in shallow seas and estuaries. That the
Long-necked Sea-lizard was aquatic is evident from the form of its
paddles; and that it was marine is almost equally so, from the remains
with which its fossils are universally associated; that it may have
occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to
those of a turtle leads us to conjecture; its motion, however, must have
been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded its progress
through the water, presenting a striking contrast to the organisation
which so admirably adapted the Ichthyosaurus to cut its swift course
through the waves. “May it not, therefore, be concluded that it swam
upon, or near the surface,” asks its accomplished discoverer, “arching
back its long neck like a swan, and occasionally darting it down at the
fish that happened to float within its reach? It may perhaps have lurked
in shoal-water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and,
raising its nostrils to a level with the surface from a considerable
depth, may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous
enemies; while the length and flexibility of its neck may have
compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and its incapacity for
swift motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the
attack which it enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey
which came within its reach.”[47]
[47] “Transactions of the Geological Society,” Second Series, vi. 503.
1841.
For the Secondary Island three species of the Plesiosaurus have been
restored, the _Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_, the _Plesiosaurus
dolichodeirus_ (Gr. _dolichos_, long, _deire_, neck), and the
_Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii_. The name “long-necked” was given to the second
of these species before it was known that many other species with long
and slender necks had existed in the seas of the same ancient period:
the third species is named after Mr. Thomas Hawkins, F.G.S., the
gentleman by whose patience, zeal, and skill, the British Museum has
been enriched with so many entire skeletons of these most extraordinary
extinct sea-lizards.
The remains of all these species occur in the lias at Lyme Regis, and at
Street, near Glastonbury; but the _Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii_ is the most
abundant in the latter locality.
[Illustration]
NEW RED SANDSTONE.
“Trias” is an arbitrary term applied in geology to the upper division of
a vast series of red loams, shales, and sandstones, interposed between
the lias and the coal, in the midland and western counties of England.
This series is collectively called the “New Red Sandstone formation,” to
distinguish it from the “Old Red Sandstone formation,” of similar or
identical mineral character, which lies immediately beneath the coal.
The animals which have been restored and placed on the lowest formation
of the Secondary Island, are peculiar to the “triassic,” or upper
division of the “New Red Sandstone” series, which division consists, in
England, of saliferous (salt-including) shales and sandstones, from 1000
to 1500 feet thick in Lancashire and Cheshire, answering to the
formation called “Keuper-sandstone” by the German geologists; and of
sandstone and quartzose conglomerate of 600 feet in thickness, answering
to the German “Bunter-sandstone.”
The largest and most characteristic animals of the trias are reptiles of
the order
BATRACHIA.
The name of this order is from the Greek word _batrachos_, signifying a
frog: and the order is represented in the present animal-population of
England by a few diminutive species of frogs, toads, and newts, or
water-salamanders. But, at the period of the deposition of the new red
sandstone, in the present counties of Warwick and Cheshire, the shores
of the ancient sea, which were then formed by that sandy deposit, were
trodden by reptiles, having the essential bony characters of the
Batrachia, but combining these with other bony characters of crocodiles
and lizards; and exhibiting both under a bulk which is made manifest by
the restoration of the largest known species, (No. 16), occupying the
extreme promontory of the Island, illustrative of the lowest and oldest
deposits of the secondary series of rocks. The species in question is
called the--
No. 18.--LABYRINTHODON SALAMANDROIDES,
or the Salamander-like Labyrinthodon; the latter term being from the
Greek, signifying the peculiar structure of the teeth, which differ from
all other reptiles in the huge Batrachia in question, by reason of the
complex labyrinthic interblending of the different substances composing
the teeth. The skull of the Labyrinthodon is attached to the neck-bones
by two joints or condyles, and the teeth are situated both on the proper
jaw-bones, and on the bone of the roof of the mouth called “vomer:” both
these characters are only found at the present day in the frogs and
salamanders. The hind-foot of the Labyrinthodon was also, as in the toad
and frog, much larger than the fore-foot; and the innermost digit in
both was short and turned in, like a thumb.
[Illustration: No. 18. Labyrinthodon Salamandroides.]
Consecutive impressions of the prints of these feet have been traced for
many steps in succession (as is accurately represented in the new red
sandstone part of the Secondary Island) in quarries of that formation in
Warwickshire, Cheshire, and also in Lancashire, more especially at a
quarry of a whitish quartzose sandstone at Storton Hill, a few miles
from Liverpool. The foot-marks are partly concave and partly in relief;
the former are seen upon the upper surface of the sandstone slabs, but
those in relief are only upon the lower surfaces, being, in fact,
natural casts, formed on the subjacent foot-prints as in moulds. The
impressions of the hind-foot are generally eight inches in length and
five inches in width: near each large footstep, and at a regular
distance--about an inch and a half--before it, a smaller print of the
fore-foot, four inches long and three inches wide, occurs. The footsteps
follow each other in pairs, each pair in the same line, at intervals of
about fourteen inches from pair to pair. The large as well as the small
steps show the thumb-like toe alternately on the right and left side,
each step making a print of five toes.
Foot-prints of corresponding form but of smaller size have been
discovered in the quarry at Storton Hill, imprinted on five thin beds of
clay, lying one upon another in the same quarry, and separated by beds
of sandstone. From the lower surface of the sandstone layers, the solid
casts of each impression project in high relief, and afford models of
the feet, toes, and claws of the animals which trod on the clay.
Similar foot-prints were first observed in Saxony, at the village of
Hessberg, near Hillburghausen, in several quarries of a gray quartzose
sandstone, alternating with beds of red sandstone, and of the same
geological age as the sandstones of England that had been trodden by the
same strange animal. The German geologist, who first described them,
proposed the name of _Cheirotherium_ (Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _therion_,
beast), for the great unknown animal that had left the foot-prints, in
consequence of the resemblance, both of the fore and hind feet, to the
impression of a human hand, and Dr. Kaup conjectured that the animal
might be a large species of the opossum-kind. The discovery, however, of
fossil skulls, jaws, teeth, and a few other bones in the sandstones
exhibiting the footprints in question, has rendered it more probable
that both the footprints and the fossils are evidences of the same kind
of huge extinct Batrachian reptiles.
An entire skull of the largest species discovered in the new red
sandstones of Wurtemberg; a lower jaw of the same species found in the
same formation in Warwickshire; some vertebræ, and a few fragments of
bones of the limbs, have served, with the indications of size and shape
of the trunk of the animal yielded by the series of consecutive
foot-prints, as the basis of the restoration of the _Labyrinthodon
salamandroides_, in the Secondary Island. It is to be understood,
however, that, with the exception of the head, the form of the animal is
necessarily more or less conjectural.
Nos. 19 & 20.--LABYBINTHODON PACHYGNATHUS.
[Illustration: Nos. 19 & 20. Section of Tooth of Labyrinthodon.
_a_ Pulp-cavity: _b b_ inflected folds of ossified capsule of tooth.]
This name, signifying the Thick-jawed Labyrinthodon, was given by its
discoverer to a species of these singular Batrachia, found in the new
red sandstone of Warwickshire, and which bears to the largest species
the proportion exhibited by the head and fore-part of the body, as
emerging from the water, for which parts alone the fossils hitherto
discovered justify the restoration.[48]
[48] Conybeare, Geol. Trans., i. 388.
Nos. 21 & 22.--DICYNODON.
In 1844 Mr. Andrew G. Bain, who had been employed in the construction of
military roads in the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, discovered, in
the tract of country extending northwards from the county of Albany,
about 450 miles east of Cape Town, several nodules or lumps of a kind of
sandstone, which, when broken, displayed, in most instances, evidences
of fossil bones, and usually of a skull with two large projecting teeth.
Accordingly, these evidences of ancient animal life in South Africa were
first notified to English geologists by Mr. Bain under the name of
“Bidentals;” and the specimens transmitted by him were submitted at his
request to Professor Owen for examination. The results of the
comparisons thereupon instituted went to show that there had formerly
existed in South Africa, and from geological evidence, probably, in a
great salt-water lake or inland sea, since converted into dry land, a
race of reptilian animals presenting in the construction of their skull
characters of the crocodile, the tortoise, and the lizard, coupled with
the presence of a pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks, growing downwards,
one from each side of the upper jaw, like the tusks of the mammalian
morse or walrus. No other kind of teeth were developed in these singular
animals: the lower jaw was armed, as in the tortoise, by a trenchant
sheath of horn. Some bones of the back, or vertebræ, by the hollowness
of the co-adapted articular surfaces, indicate these reptiles to have
been good swimmers, and probably to have habitually existed in water;
but the construction of the bony passages of the nostrils proves that
they must have come to the surface to breathe air.
Some extinct plants allied to the Lepidodendron, with other fossils,
render it probable that the sandstones containing the Dicynodont
reptiles were of the same geological age as those that have revealed the
remains of the Labyrinthodonts in Europe.
The generic name Dicynodon is from the Greek words signifying “two tusks
or canine teeth.” Three species of this genus have been demonstrated
from the fossils transmitted by Mr. Bain.
The _Dicynodon lacerticeps_, or Lizard-headed Dicynodon, attained the
bulk of a walrus; the form of the head and tusks is correctly given in
the restoration (No. 21); the trunk has been added conjecturally, to
illustrate the strange combination of characters manifested in the head.
A second species, with a head so formed as to have given the animal
somewhat of the physiognomy of an owl, has been partially restored at
No. 22.
[Illustration: No. 8. Dinornis.]
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRYERS.
[Illustration: POMPEIAN COURT.
ERECTED BY M. DIGBY WYATT
PUBLISHED FOR THE CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY, BY BRADBURY & EVANS, 11
BOUVERIE ST
P.H. DE LA MOTT]
THE
POMPEIAN COURT
IN THE
CRYSTAL PALACE.
DESCRIBED BY GEORGE SCHARF, JUN.,
F.S.A., F.R.S.L., &c.
[Illustration]
CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY;
AND
BRADBURY AND EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON.
1854.
BRADBURY AND EVANS,
PRINTERS TO THE CRYSTAL PALACE COMPANY,
WHITEFRIARS.
PREFACE.
In the following account of the Pompeian Court, my chief aim has been to
combine simplicity with truth; relying for success on that interest
which so alluring a subject is certain to create. With much
gratification I avail myself of the privilege granted to an author, in
his preface, of returning my best thanks to those friends who have lent
me their aid in this arduous undertaking. Mr. Digby Wyatt is entitled to
the gratitude of all engaged in the works of art at the Crystal Palace
for the opportunities he has afforded to each artist for the display of
his particular talents, and I sincerely thank him for his kindness in
accompanying me through the building and affording minute information to
my numerous enquiries when he could with difficulty spare the time. I
beg also cordially to thank Mr. Samuel Phillips for important
suggestions respecting the conduct of my work, and for his interest and
encouragement in its progress. Mr. Edward Falkener is entitled to my
best acknowledgments, not only for the valuable assistance rendered in
his published account of a Pompeian house, but for his kindness in
looking over the proofs of these pages before they were committed to
press. It is to be hoped that many of his observations may appear at
greater length in the next edition of this Handbook, without prejudice
to the magnificent work he is contemplating on the “Domestic
Architecture of Pompeii.” I sincerely thank my friend, Mr. James Morant
Lockyer for the benefit of his long architectural sojourn in Pompeii;
regretting, at the same time, that the public has not had the advantage
of his extensive knowledge and experience.
The excellent paintings produced here in the Pompeian Court, under the
direction of Signor Abbate require no commendation from me; but I feel
that I shall be only expressing the sentiment of others in wishing that
we may at some future period see an extension of this ancient palace, or
another series of apartments in which the same abilities shall afford us
accurate copies of still more of the pictorial celebrities--such as the
Theseus and the Minotaur, and Hercules and Telephus, found at
Herculaneum; the Sacrifice of Iphigenia and the Anger of Achilles, from
the House of the Tragic Poet; also the Zephyrus and Flora, and some of
the picture mosaics, the Choragus one, for instance, and the far-famed
Alexander and Darius at the battle of Issus.
THE POMPEIAN COURT.
DESCRIBED BY GEORGE SCHARF, JUN.
INTRODUCTION.
DESTRUCTION OF HERCULANEUM AND POMPEII.
“Many a calamity has befallen the world ere now, yet none like this
replete with instruction and delight for remote generations.”--GOETHE.
[Illustration: View of Naples and Mount Vesuvius.]
Near the modern city of Naples, at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, once
stood the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Whilst the former
was considerably removed from the volcano, the latter was seated
immediately at the base of the mountain, on a promontory projecting into
the bay.
Vesuvius was not considered dangerous by the ancient occupants of the
soil, as no eruption had ever been known to take place. Strabo noticed
the igneous character of its rocks, but the whole district being covered
with vines and plantations, undisturbed since the memory of man, he
thence assumed the fires to be extinct for want of fuel. Even the sides
of the mountain were overgrown with trees, and the summit alone
continued barren and rough. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood were
probably less inclined to consider the possibility of danger to
themselves from the existence of two active volcanoes not far from them
which seemed to serve as a vent for all subterranean commotions--the
one, Mount Ætna; the other, Mount Epopeus in the island now called
Ischia. Ætna, the majestic snowy mountain of Sicily, more than three
times the height of Vesuvius, has been known, from the earliest times,
as an active volcano; and many passages in Æschylus, Pindar, Thucydides,
and Diodorus Siculus might be adduced, commemorating particular
eruptions, &c. Pausanias mentions an instance of the piety of two youths
who saved their parents at Catana (Book 10., ch. xxviii.) during the
descent of the lava which threatened to surround them. In the year 73
B.C., Spartacus, a fugitive slave, at the head of a troop of gladiators
and revolters, encamped on the summit of Vesuvius, where they were
blockaded. The natural ruggedness of the place, and the density of the
vines, favoured their subsequent escape. This is the earliest mention of
the actual appearance of the volcano. The natural beauties of the
district, then called Campania, are glorified by most writers; it was
more particularly celebrated for its fertility and the luxuriant
magnificence of its scenery.
The convulsions of nature have indeed changed the outline of the
mountain, but the varied charms of the beautiful coast remain in
undiminished attraction. Deep shades and crystal streamlets, sunny banks
and refreshing groves, display the natural loveliness of a locality,
favoured with the most luxuriant vegetation, and the finest climate in
the world. These enable us fully to comprehend the pains and trouble
bestowed by the ancient Romans in building villas and marine residences
in so charming a situation. Thus, in the earliest times of the empire,
the more wealthy and luxurious Romans established what we moderns should
denominate watering places, for fashionable resort, on the coast, Baiæ,
Dicæarchia, afterwards Puteoli, Cumæ, Neapolis, and Herculaneum, but the
warm springs of the first two rendered them the most favourite resorts,
and they became the Bath and Brighton of that era.
Lucullus, Pompey and Cæsar, had villas at Baiæ, Nero spent much time
there, and Caligula contributed to the celebrity of the scene by his
extraordinary bridge of boats. Hadrian died at Baiæ; and, at a later
period, Alexander Severus erected many villas in the same neighbourhood.
Some of the most splendid palaces were raised upon artificial
foundations in the sea itself, and nothing could exceed the luxury and
indolence indulged in by the visitors to these regions as depicted by
some of the later poets. Horace himself speaks of the pleasant Baiæ as
the most delicious place in the world.[49] And so it may have been, and
all the neighbouring cities of the bay must have partaken more or less
of the same glories. Pompeii was somewhat removed from these enchanting
scenes, being on the other side of the bay of Naples, and the situation
was not so pleasant as that of its fellow-sufferer Herculaneum. This
city stood on a promontory, open, as Strabo says, to the south wind,
which made it especially healthy. In fact, the art and style of
everything found at Herculaneum show it to have been the resort of a
superior class of people. Pompeii is supposed to have stood on the banks
of the river Sarnus. The town itself was raised upon a considerable
eminence so as to be protected in a great measure from the floods that
at certain times of the year devastated the surrounding plain.
[49] “Nullus in orbe sinus Baiis prælucet amœnis.”--Ep. bk. i. 1, line
83.
The peace and tranquillity of these beautiful regions were first
disturbed by natural convulsions in the year 63 A.D. A violent
earthquake on the 16th February, threw down many parts of Pompeii, and
seriously injured Herculaneum; six hundred sheep were swallowed up at
once, statues were split, and many persons became insane. From this
period, the Pompeians were disturbed by frequent shocks of earthquake;
between the first symptoms in 63 and the dreadful catastrophe which
involved their destruction, evidences still exist of the persevering
endeavours of the inhabitants at restoration and repair. Many mosaics
have been found, which display traces of a very different order of
workmanship, in, the repair of damage caused by the earthquake, from
that employed in their original construction.
In the reign of the emperor Titus, A.D. 79, the celebrated eruption of
Vesuvius broke out, suddenly ejecting dense clouds of ashes and
pumice-stones, beneath which Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ were
completely buried. Awful as such a phenomenon must at all times appear,
the event was still more appalling to the inhabitants as they were
unable, in the confusion of the moment, to comprehend the source whence
these horrors proceeded. An eye witness has fortunately left a detailed
account of the event in two letters which are still preserved. We insert
the greater part of them as best exhibiting the realities of the scene
and the excitement of the unfortunate sufferers.
PLINY’S LETTER TO TACITUS.
“Your request that I would send you an account of my uncle’s death, in
order to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity, deserves my
acknowledgments; for if this action shall be celebrated by your pen, the
glory of it, I am well assured, will be rendered for ever illustrious.
And notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune, which, as it involved
at the same time a most beautiful country in ruins, and destroyed so
many populous cities, seems to promise him an everlasting remembrance;
notwithstanding he has himself composed many and lasting works, yet I am
persuaded the mentioning of him in your immortal writings will greatly
contribute to eternise his name. Happy I esteem those to be whom
Providence has distinguished with the abilities either of doing such
actions as are worthy of being related, or of relating them in a manner
worthy of being read; but doubly happy are they who are blessed with
both these uncommon talents. In the number of which my uncle, as his own
writings and your history will evidently prove, may justly be ranked. It
is with extreme willingness, therefore, I execute your commands; and
should indeed have claimed the task if you had not enjoined it.
“He was at that time with the fleet under his command at Misenum. On the
24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him to
observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. He had
just returned from taking the benefit of the sun, and after bathing
himself in cold water, and taking a slight repast, was retired to his
study. He immediately arose and went out up on an eminence from whence
he might more distinctly view this uncommon appearance. It was not at
that distance discernible from what mountain this cloud issued, but it
was found afterwards to ascend from Mount Vesuvius. I cannot give you a
more exact description of its figure, than by resembling it to that of a
pine tree, for it shot up a great height in the form of a trunk, which
extended itself at the top into sort of branches, occasioned, I imagine,
either by a sudden gust of air that impelled it, the force of which
decreased as it advanced upwards, or the cloud itself being pressed back
again by its own weight, expanded in this manner:--it appeared sometimes
bright and sometimes dark and spotted, as it was either more or less
impregnated with earth and cinder. This extraordinary phenomenon excited
my uncle’s philosophical curiosity to take a nearer view of it. He
ordered a light vessel to be got ready, and gave me the liberty, if I
thought it proper, to attend him; I rather chose to continue my studies;
for, as it happened, he had given me an employment of that kind. As he
was coming out of the house he received a note from Rectina, the wife of
Bassus, who was in the utmost alarm at the imminent danger which
threatened her; for her villa being situated at the foot of Mount
Vesuvius, there was no way to escape but by sea; she earnestly entreated
him, therefore, to come to her assistance. He accordingly changed his
first design, and what he began with a philosophical, he pursued with an
heroical turn of mind. He ordered the galleys to put to sea, and went
himself on board with an intention of assisting, not only Rectina, but
several others; for the villas stand extremely thick upon that beautiful
coast. When hastening to the place from whence others fled with the
utmost terror, he steered his direct course to the point of danger, and
with so much calmness and presence of mind, as to be able to make and
dictate his observations upon the motion and figure of that dreadful
scene. He was now so nigh the mountain, that the cinders, which grew
thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the ships,
together with pumice stones, and black pieces of burning rock. They were
likewise in danger not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of
the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the
mountain, and obstructed all the shore. Here he stopped to consider
whether he should return back again; to which the pilot advising him,
‘Fortune,’ said he, ‘befriends the brave; carry me to Pomponianus.’
Pomponianus was then at Stabiæ, separated by a gulf, which the sea,
after several insensible windings, forms upon the shore. He had already
sent his baggage on board; for though he was not at that time in actual
danger, yet being within the view of it, and indeed extremely near, if
it should in the least increase, he was determined to put to sea as soon
as the wind should change. It was favourable, however, for carrying my
uncle to Pomponianus, whom he found in the greatest consternation. He
embraced him with tenderness, encouraged and exhorted him to keep up his
spirits, and the more to dissipate his fears, he ordered, with an air of
unconcern, the bath to be got ready; when, after having bathed, he sat
down to supper with great cheerfulness, or at least, what is equally
heroic, with all the appearance of it. In the meanwhile, the eruption
from Mount Vesuvius flamed out in several places with much violence,
which the darkness of the night contributed to render still more visible
and dreadful. But my uncle, in order to soothe the apprehensions of his
friend, assured him it was only the burning of the villages, which the
country people had abandoned to the flames; after this he retired to
rest, and it is most certain he was so little discomposed as to fall
into a deep sleep, for being pretty fat, and breathing hard, those who
attended without, actually heard him snore. The court which led to his
apartment being now almost filled with stones and ashes, if he had
continued there any time longer, it would have been impossible for him
to have made his way out; it was thought proper therefore to awaken him.
He got up and went to Pomponianus and the rest of his company, who were
unconcerned enough to think of going to bed. They consulted together
whether it would be most prudent to trust to the houses, which now shook
from side to side with frequent and violent concussions, or fly to the
open fields, where the calcined stones and cinders, though light indeed,
yet fell in large showers, and threatened destruction. In this distress
they resolved for the fields, as the less dangerous situation of the
two. A resolution which, while the rest of the company were hurried into
by their fears, my uncle embraced upon cool and deliberate
consideration. They went out then having pillows tied upon their heads
with napkins, and this was their whole defence against the storm of
stones that fell round them. It was now day everywhere else, but there a
deeper darkness prevailed than in the most obscure night; which,
however, was in some degree dissipated by torches and other lights of
various kinds. They thought proper to go down farther upon the shore, to
observe if they might safely put out to sea, but they found the waves
still run extremely high and boisterous. There my uncle having drank a
draught or two of cold water, threw himself down upon a cloth which was
spread for him, when immediately the flames, and a strong smell of
sulphur, which was the forerunner of them, dispersed the rest of the
company, and obliged him to arise. He raised himself up with the
assistance of two of his servants, and instantly fell down, dead,
suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross and noxious vapour, having
always had weak lungs, and frequently subject to a difficulty of
breathing. As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third
day after this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and
without any marks of violence upon it, exactly in the same posture that
he fell, and looking more like a man asleep than dead.
“During all this time my mother and I, who were at Misenum--but as this
has no connection with your history, so your inquiry went no farther
than concerning my uncle’s death; with that therefore I will put an end
to my letter. Suffer me only to add, that I have faithfully related to
you what I was either an eyewitness of myself, or received immediately
after the accident happened, and before there was time to vary the
truth.
“You will choose out of this narrative such circumstances as shall be
most suitable to your purpose; for there is a great difference between
what is proper for a letter and a history--between writing to a friend
and writing to the public. Farewell.”
TO CORNELIUS TACITUS.
“The letter which, in compliance with your request, I wrote concerning
the death of my uncle, has raised, it seems, your curiosity to know what
terrors and dangers attended me, while I continued at Misenum; for
there, I think, the account in my former broke off. Though my shocked
soul recoils, my tongue shall tell. My uncle having left us, I pursued
the studies which prevented my going with him, till it was time to
bathe. After which I went to supper, and from thence to bed, where my
sleep was greatly broken and disturbed. There had been for many days
before some shocks of an earthquake, which the less surprised us as they
are extremely frequent in Campania; but they were so particularly
violent that night, that they not only shook every thing about us, but
seemed indeed to threaten total destruction. My mother flew to my
chamber, where she found me rising, in order to awaken her. We went out
into a small court belonging to the house, which separated the sea from
the buildings. As I was at that time but eighteen years of age, I know
not whether I should call my behaviour in this dangerous juncture
courage or rashness; but I took up Livy and amused myself with turning
over that author, and even making extracts from him, as if all about me
had been in full security. While we were in this posture, a friend of
my uncle’s who was just come from Spain to pay a visit, joined us, and
observing me sitting by my mother with a book in my hand, greatly
condemned her calmness, at the same time that he reproved me for my
careless security; nevertheless I still went on with my author. Though
it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid; the
buildings all around us tottered, and though we stood upon open ground,
yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no remaining there
without certain and great danger; we therefore resolved to quit the
town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation, and (as to the
mind distracted with terror, every suggestion seems more prudent than
its own) pressed in great crowds about us in our way out. Being got at a
convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in the midst of a
most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we had ordered to
be drawn out, were so agitated backwards and forwards, though upon the
most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by
supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back upon
itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of the
earth; it is certain, at least, the shore was considerably enlarged, and
several sea animals were left upon it. On the other side a black and
dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapour, darted out a
long train of fire resembling flashes of lightning, but much larger.
Upon this our Spanish friend, whom I mentioned above, addressing himself
to my mother and me with greater warmth and earnestness, ‘If your
brother and your uncle,’ said he, ‘is safe, he certainly wishes you may
be so too; but if he perished, it was his desire, no doubt, that you
might both survive him. Why, therefore, do you delay your escape a
moment?’ ‘We could never think of our own safety,’ we said, ‘while we
were uncertain of his.’ Hereupon our friend left us, and withdrew from
the danger with the utmost precipitation. Soon afterwards the cloud
seemed to descend and cover the whole ocean; as indeed it entirely hid
the island of Caprea and the promontory of Misenum. My mother strongly
conjured me to make my escape at any rate, which, as I was young, I
might easily do; as for herself, she said, her age and corpulency
rendered all attempts of that sort impossible; however, she should
willingly meet death, if she could have the satisfaction of seeing that
she was not the occasion of mine. But I absolutely refused to leave her,
and taking her by the hand, I led her on: she complied with great
reluctance, and not without many reproaches to herself for retarding my
flight. The ashes now begun to fall upon us, though in no great
quantity; I turned my head, and observed behind us a thick smoke, which
came rolling after us like a torrent. I proposed, while we had yet any
light, to turn out of the high road, lest we should be pressed to death
in the dark, by the crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of
the path, when a darkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy
night, or when there is no moon, but of a room when it is shut up, and
all the lights extinct. Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of
women, the screams of children, and the cries of men; some calling for
their children, others for their parents, others for their husbands, and
only distinguishing each other by their voices; one lamenting his own
fate, another that of his family; some wishing to die, from the very
fear of dying; some lifting up their hands to the gods; but the greater
part imagining that the last and eternal night was come, which was to
destroy both the gods and the world together. Among these there are some
who augmented the real terrors by imaginary ones, and made the frighted
multitude falsely believe that Misenum was actually in flames. At length
a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be rather the
forerunner of an approaching burst of flames (as in truth it was), than
the return of day; however, the fire fell at a distance from us: then
again we were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of ashes
rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake off,
otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap; I might
boast that, during all this scene of horror, not a sigh or expression of
fear escaped from me; had not my support been founded in that miserable,
though strong consolation, that all mankind were involved in the same
calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing with the world itself. At
last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloud of
smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun appeared, though very
faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that
presented itself to our eyes (which were extremely weakened) seemed
changed, being covered over with white ashes as with a deep snow. We
returned to Misenum, where we refreshed ourselves as well as we could,
and passed an anxious night between hope and fear, though, indeed, with
a much larger share of the latter; for the earthquake still continued,
while several enthusiastic people ran up and down, heightening their own
and their friend’s calamities, by terrible predictions. However, my
mother and I, notwithstanding the danger we had passed, and that which
still threatened us, had no thoughts of leaving the place till we
should receive some account of my uncle.
“And now you will read this narrative without any view of inserting it
in your history, of which it is by no means worthy; and indeed you must
impute it to your own request, if it shall appear scarce to deserve even
the trouble of a letter. Farewell.”
* * * * *
Shortly after the catastrophe all memorials of the devoted cities were
lost; discussions on the places they had once occupied were excited only
by some obscure passages in classical authors. Five successive eruptions
contributed to bury them still deeper under the surface, and the sixth,
which occurred in the year 1036, is the first instance of an emission of
lava. Before that time the only agents of desolation were showers of
sand, cinders, and scoriæ, together with loose fragments of rock.
Volcanic ashes poured out in a current have been known to darken the air
for hours, and even for days. Such must have been the nature of the
phenomenon which the younger Pliny saw and compared to a lofty pine.
Dion Cassius states that the ashes of this eruption were carried as far
as Africa, and that the dust was so abundant as even to darken the air
in the neighbourhood of Rome. Steam poured out in vast quantities, and
uniting with the ashes that fell upon Herculaneum, formed a torrent of
mud, imbedding all in solid tufa, whilst the ashes of Pompeii were not
impregnated, and all lay in this city loose and unconsolidated. Stones
of eight pounds weight fell on Pompeii, whilst Stabiæ was overwhelmed
with fragments of about an ounce in weight, which must have drifted in
immense quantities. During a later eruption fine ashes were borne by the
wind as far as Constantinople. Whilst the ancient cities thus lay buried
and forgotten, Neapolis, the residence and burial-place of Virgil,[50]
grew into the great modern city of Naples, extending its suburban
villages along the shore, and connecting itself by a chain of houses to
the very roots of Vesuvius. The next town to Naples is Portici. It
contains 6000 inhabitants. Immediately adjoining Portici is the still
larger town of Resina, with a population of 11,000 souls. These bustling
and much frequented places are built upon the lava which covers
Herculaneum.
[50] See Portrait Gallery, No. 121.
DISCOVERY OF THE ANCIENT CITIES.
[Illustration: Part of the Bay of Naples, showing the relative positions
of Naples, Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ to Mount Vesuvius.]
In the year 1689, during some excavations in the plain at the foot of
Vesuvius, where it was subsequently proved that Pompeii had flourished,
a workman observed the regularity with which successive layers of earth
and volcanic matter had been deposited. He compared them to pavements
one upon the other; with remains of burnt vegetation, charcoal, and
common earth beneath each volcanic deposit. Under one of these dense
masses of scoria, dust, and pumice stone, he found large quantities of
carbonised timber, locks, and iron work, evidently the remains of
habitations, which, together with some old keys, and inscriptions giving
the name of the locality, satisfied the learned of the day that they
belonged to the ancient city of Pompeii. (Venuti, p. 37. Mém. de
l’Académie Fran.; Mém. de Littérature, tom. xv. Des Embrasemens du Mont
Vésuve, and also Bianchini, Istoria Universale, Roma, 1699, p. 246.
Cochin, p. 31). The discovery created little excitement at the time; the
government was indisposed to prosecute the research, and no farther
excavation was carried on till the year 1749.
Meanwhile, the accidental sinking of a well in another place brought to
light such treasures of art as to induce a systematic exploration in a
more profitable locality. This was in the neighbourhood of Naples, where
after seventeen centuries the city of Herculaneum was once more rescued
from oblivion. The circumstances which led to the discovery are briefly
these. The prince D’Elbœuf, of the house of Lorraine, came to Naples in
1706 (Cochin, p. 35), and ordered the construction of a marine villa for
himself at Portici, in 1711. (Venuti, p. 38. Gori, Admiranda, p. 39.) He
had a Frenchman in his service, who possessed the art of making a
durable stucco from pulverised marble, and as many fragments of antique
marbles as possible were collected for the manufacture of his
composition. One day a countryman presented himself, asserting that in
sinking a well at Resina (Venuti, p. 39), he had discovered a variety of
precious marbles, some of which he had brought with him as specimens.
These marbles were so beautiful and rare, that the prince was induced to
purchase of the man the right of further excavation, and he immediately
commenced a systematic course of exploration upon that spot. The stucco
prepared by the Frenchman was not only an imitation of precious marbles,
but also a cement similar to that employed by the ancients. Most of the
antique buildings were so plastered internally, as it was harder and
more durable than marble in its natural state. The excavators,
therefore, were more delighted when they found large plain slabs and
shafts of columns than elaborately carved foliage and statues, because
the latter afforded them a smaller quantity of actual material.
Stendardo was appointed to direct the works which were carried on
branching sideways from the well, just above the level of the water;
(Gori, p. 40. Venuti, p. 39. Cochin, p. 37;) at the expiration of two
days, they found a statue of Hercules, evidently from a Grecian chisel,
and they remarked with astonishment that it had formerly been restored
(Gori, p. 40). Some days after this they came upon a female statue,
which was at once pronounced to be a Cleopatra (Gori, p. 40). They next
extricated a large square mass of marble, and upon removing a crust of
bituminous matter it was found to be the architrave of a gateway, with
letters of bronze inlaid into the surface. The inscription was
APPIVS. PVLCHER. CAII. FILIVS.
VIR. EPVLONVM. (Venuti, p. 39.)
Many columns of variegated alabaster were next discovered, and this led
to the excavation of a circular temple, with twenty-four columns, and
statues of Greek marble between them (Gori, p. 41). The pavement of this
building was constructed of that rich yellow marble, called _Giallo
antico_, and many columns of the same material lay in the vicinity.
Seven of the twelve figures belonging to the temple were female,
executed in a superior Grecian style. Prince Elbœuf dispatched them to
Vienna as a present to Prince Eugene of Savoy (Venuti, p. 39). The best
of these statues were afterwards sold to the King of Poland for 60,000
scudi; they are now at Dresden, and engraved in plates 19 to 26 of
Becker’s “Augusteum” (Winckelmann, Werke, vol. ii. p. 135). The prince
evidently knew very little of the real value of his discoveries, and
during the next five years continued disinterring pieces of mosaic
alabaster slabs, and a few statues, some of which decorated his villa,
and the rest were sent over to France. Upon the discovery of a beautiful
statue of one of the daughters of Balbus, the state interfered, and the
Neapolitan government prohibited any further excavations. For thirty
years the site was almost forgotten. In 1736, the King Carlo III.
(Borbone) resolved to build a palace at Portici, and the ancient well
was once more resorted to. The excavations were resumed, and very
important results followed.
Animated discussions were still maintained respecting the name of the
ancient city, for a city the excavations had already proved it to be. A
communication to the Royal Society by a Mr. Sloane, in 1740, exhibits
the matter as still in a state of uncertainty. The Marquis Venuti,
keeper of the Farnese library which Carlo Borbone had inherited from
Rome, was appointed superintendent of the excavations at Resina. He has
left minute records of his proceedings both in the “Admiranda Notizia,”
2 et. seq., of Gori, and in his own work published at Venice and London,
1750. He commenced 12th November, 1738, by carrying on a kind of tunnel
laterally from the old well. In a short time (Venuti, p. 40. Gori, p.
42) two bronze equestrian statues were found, and soon after three full
length marble figures, larger than life, of Roman dignitaries, dressed
in the toga, with massive piers of brick between, plastered with stucco,
and painted with arabesques in various colours. The excavators had now
reached the interior of the theatre, which the numerous seats and steps
clearly indicated. An inscription, moreover, on the architrave contained
part of the word Theatre, the name of the person at whose cost the
building was erected, and that of the architect. A second inscription on
the corresponding architrave of the opposite side is almost a
repetition:--
[Illustration:
L. ANNIVS. L. F. MAMMIANVS. RVFVS. IIVIR. QVINQ. [TH]EA[T]R... O....
P. NVMISIVS. ARC... TEC...]
(Gori, p. 42. Venuti, p. 42.)
These architraves covered the side entrances to the orchestra, and both
of them supported a colossal group in bronze of a chariot and two
horses. The central group of the building was a quadriga, and probably
represented the emperor in his chariot with four horses. All these
bronze statues had been gilt. Some fine columns of rosso antico were
transported to the cathedral of Naples, and others to the Royal Palace;
they appear to have adorned the proscenium (Venuti, p. 71). The theatre
was one of the most perfect specimens of ancient architecture. It had,
from the floor, upwards of eighteen rows of seats (Gori, 44), and above
these three other rows which seem to have been intended for the female
part of the audience, and were covered with a portico to screen them
from the rays of the sun. Statues of Drusus and Antonia, and of the nine
Muses, were found in other parts of the building. A bronze colossal
statue of Titus filled with lead (Gori, p. 45) was so heavy that twelve
men were unable to move it. Many other bronze statues of municipal
authorities and benefactors were found with their respective
inscriptions.
The theatre was capable of containing 8000 persons. Nearly the whole of
its surface, as well as the arched walks leading to the seats, was cased
with marble. The area or pit was floored with thick squares of _giallo
antico_, the beautiful marble of a yellowish hue. The pedestal, of white
marble, which supported a chariot and four bronze horses, is still to be
seen in its place; but the group itself had been crushed and broken in
pieces by the immense weight of lava which fell on it. The fragments
having been collected, might have been easily reunited, but they were
carelessly thrown into a corner, like old iron, and part of them were
stolen. The body of one horse and part of the charioteer, being deemed
useless, were accordingly fused, to be converted into two large framed
medallions of their Neapolitan Majesties. The remaining fragments were
cast into the vaults of the royal palace; and, at last, it was resolved
to make the best use of what was left; which was, to convert the four
horses into one, by taking a fore leg of one of them, a hinder leg of
another, the head of a third, and where the breach was irremediable, to
cast a new piece. To this contrivance, the famous bronze horse now in
the Museum owes its existence; and, considering its patchwork origin,
still conveys a high idea of the skill of the ancient artist. A pompous
inscription upon its pedestal records the circumstances of its
construction (Bronzi di Ercolano, vol. ii., page 255).
On the south side of the theatre, stood a basilica or public building
which contained the celebrated equestrian statues of the Balbi--of one
block of marble (Gori, p. 59),--These fine statues possess the
additional value of having finally set at rest the question respecting
the proper name of the city. On the front of the pedestals is
inscribed--
M. NONIO. M. F.
BALBO. PR. PRO. COS.
HERCVLANENSES.
(Gerhard, Neapel. p. 22. Gori, p. 167. Venuti, p. 59.)