THE INTERIOR.
NOTE.--The following Guide conducts the visitor up the Colonnade from
the Railway Station, through the South Wing into the building. Passing
through the nearest section of the Natural History Illustrations, he
proceeds direct to the front of the _Screen of the Kings and Queens of
England_, from whence he walks up the Nave to the _Great Central
Transept_, and then commences the series of _Fine Arts Courts_ with
the _Egyptian Court_, continuing it with the _Greek Court_, the _Roman
Court_, and, through the division for the Tropical End, the _Alhambra
Court_, and the _Assyrian Court_. Then crossing this end of the
building, he continues the series of Courts on the other side with the
_Byzantine Court_, the _German Mediæval Court_, the _English Mediæval
Court_, the _French and Italian Mediæval Court_, the _Renaissance
Court_, the _Elizabethan Court_, the _Italian Court_, and the _Italian
Vestibule_. The _Court of Monuments of Art_ is next, from which the
visitor crosses the Central Transept to the west, and explores the
_Stationery Court_ and the adjacent departments, then the _Birmingham
Court_, the _Sheffield Court_, and the _Pompeian House_, from which he
crosses the South Transept, and enters the _Natural History
Department_, having inspected which, he returns up the building on the
other side, through the _Foreign Glass Manufactures Court_, the
_British Porcelain Manufactures Court_, the _Ceramic Court_, and the
_Court of Fancy Manufactures_. Returning then to the Screen of the
Kings and Queens of England, the visitor examines the collections of
the _Nave_, the _South Transept_, the _Great Central Transept_, the
_North Transept_, and the _Tropical End of the Building_. The _Botany
of the Palace_ is then described. The _Main and Upper Galleries_, in
which will be found the _Picture Gallery_, the _Naval Museum_, the
_Engineering Models_, the _Indian Court_, the _Industrial Museum and
Technological Collection_, and the _Industrial Exhibition_ (described
in the Exhibitors’ Descriptive Catalogue, page 175), should be next
visited; and, after them, the _Agricultural Machinery_, and the
_Machinery in Motion_, which are exhibited in the basement story next
the Gardens: the basement is reached by descending the stairs from
either of the Transepts.
THE CRYSTAL PALACE.
THE ENTRANCE.
The Crystal Palace Railway from London Bridge, and the West End Railway
from Pimlico, unite at the Station, in the grounds of the Crystal
Palace. The Station is connected with the South Wing of the building by
a glass-covered colonnade, along which is planted a brilliant array of
flowering plants, whilst luxuriant creeping plants adorn the wall. The
Fine Art Courts commence with the Egyptian Court, at the Central
Transept, from whence the sequence is continued round the northern
portion of the Nave. The Central Transept then will be the proper
starting-point. When the weather is fine, the visitor may cross the
gardens from the Railway Station direct to the central entrance on the
upper terrace. We assume that he proceeds by the more usual way of the
Colonnade, through the South Wing, until he attains the floor of the
main building. He then passes through the Natural History illustrations
which are nearest, and which he will examine hereafter; and, keeping to
this, the south end of the Palace, proceeds towards the centre of the
Nave, taking his stand opposite the Screen of the Kings and Queens of
England, which bounds the long Nave at this end. From this point an
unrivalled general view is obtained of the interior of the building. In
the foreground is the Crystal Fountain, which adorned the Palace in Hyde
Park, but here elevated in its proportions and improved. It is
surrounded by a sheet of water, at each end of which float the gigantic
leaves of the _Victoria Regia_, the intermediate space being occupied by
various aquatic plants,--the _Nymphæa Devoniensis_, the _Nymphæa
cærulea_, the _Nymphæa dentata_, and the _Nelumbium speciosum_, or
sacred bean of the Pythagoreans, being conspicuous, with many others,
beautiful, rare, or curious. The basin is also encircled with rich
flowers. On either side of the Nave the plants of almost every clime
wave their foliage, forming a mass of cool, pleasant colour, admirably
harmonising with the surrounding tints, and also acting as a most
effective background to relieve the white statues, which are
picturesquely grouped along the Nave; at the back of these are the
façades of the various Industrial and Fine Art Courts, whose bright
colouring gives additional brilliancy to the interior, whilst the aërial
blue tint of the arched roof above considerably increases the effect of
the whole composition, having the effect of an opal vault. Towards
evening the interior of the Palace appears like a vocal grove, the
visitor hearing with delight the beautiful note of the nightingale,
together with that of blackbirds, thrushes, wrens, and robin-redbreasts,
which build and make a perpetual home of this magnificent covered
garden.
[Illustration: VIEW OF PALACE FROM SECOND TERRACE.]
Let the visitor now proceed up the building until he arrives at the
Central Transept, at which point he will be enabled to judge of the
vastness of the hall in the midst of which he stands, and of the whole
structure of which the transept forms so noble and conspicuous a part.
INTRODUCTION TO THE FINE ARTS COURTS.
In order the better to appreciate the arrangement of those restorations
through which we now propose to conduct the visitor, a few words
explanatory of the object which they are intended to serve may prove of
use.
One of the most important objects of the Crystal Palace is to teach a
great practical lesson in Art. Specimens of the various phases through
which the arts of Architecture and Sculpture have passed, are here
collected, commencing from the earliest known period down to modern
times, or from the remote ages of Egyptian civilisation to the sixteenth
century after Christ--a period of more than three thousand years.
Perhaps no subject, with the exception of the literature of departed
nations, affords more interest to the mind of man, than these visible
proofs of the different states of society throughout the world’s
history; and nothing better aids us in realising the people and customs
of the past, than the wonderful monuments happily preserved from the
destructive hand of Time, and now restored to something of their
original splendour by the patient and laborious researches of modern
times; and, we may add (not without some pride), by the enterprising
liberality of Englishmen.
Nor is it the least extraordinary fact, in this view of progress, that
the building itself, which contains these valuable monuments of past
ages, is essentially different from every preceding style, uniting
perfect strength with aërial lightness, and as easy of erection as it is
capable of endurance. Thus then, beneath one roof, may the visitor trace
the course of art from centuries long anterior to Christianity, down to
the very moment in which he lives, and obtain by this means an idea of
the successive states of civilisation which from time to time have
arisen in the world, flourishing for a greater or less period, until
overturned by the aggressions of barbarians, or the no less destructive
agency of a sensual and degraded luxury. Sculpture, the sister art of
architecture, has also been worthily illustrated. Vainly, in any part of
the world, will be sought a similar collection, by means of which the
progress of that beautiful art can be regularly traced.
The statues will generally be found as much as possible in or near the
Architectural Courts of the periods and countries to which they belong,
so that the eye may track the intellectual stream as it flows on, now
rising to the highest point of beauty, and now sinking to the lowest
depths of degradation. The visitor is invited to proceed with us on this
world-wide tour of inspection, but he must bear in mind that our present
task is to show him how to examine the Building itself, with its
contents, and not to describe them, except by briefly pointing out the
most remarkable objects that encounter him on his way. For detailed and
valuable information the visitor is referred to the excellent Handbooks
of the respective Courts, all of which describe with minuteness not only
their contents, but every needful circumstance in connection with their
history. The point from which we start is the Central Transept.
Proceeding northwards, up the Nave, the visitor turns immediately to the
left and finds himself in front of
THE EGYPTIAN COURT.[5]
The remains of Egyptian Architecture are the most ancient yet
discovered. They possess an absorbing interest, not only on account of
the connection of Egypt with Biblical history, but also of the perfect
state of the remains, which enables us to judge of the high state of
civilisation to which Egypt attained, and which have permitted the
decipherers of the hieroglyphics, led by Dr. Young, Champollion, and
Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in our own time, to give us clear insight into
the manner of life--public and private--of this early and interesting
nation. Egyptian architecture is characterised by simplicity of
construction, gigantic proportions, and massive solidity. The buildings
were almost entirely of stone, and many of them excavations and shapings
of rocks. The examples of this architecture now before us are not taken
from any one ruin, but are illustrations of various styles, commencing
with the earliest, and terminating with the latest, so that we are
enabled to follow the gradual development of the art. Little change,
however, was effected during its progress. The original solidity so
admirably suited to the requirements of the Egyptians continued to the
end; and religion forbade a change in the conventional representations
of those gods and kings which so extensively cover the temples and
tombs. So that we find the same peculiar character continued in a great
measure to the very last.
[5] See the “Handbook to the Egyptian Court,” by Owen Jones and Samuel
Sharpe; also, “The Egyptians in the Time of the Pharaohs, being a
Companion to the Crystal Palace Collection,” by Sir Gardner Wilkinson,
to which is added, “An Introduction to the Study of Egyptian
Hieroglyphs,” by Samuel Birch. Crown 8vo., with Illustrations.
[Illustration: Plan of the Egyptian Court.]
Advancing up the avenue of lions, cast from a pair brought from Egypt by
Lord Prudhoe (the present Duke of Northumberland), we have before us the
outer walls and columns of a temple, not taken from any one particular
structure, but composed from various sources, to illustrate Egyptian
columns and capitals during the Ptolemaic period, somewhere about 300
years B.C. On the walls are coloured sunk-reliefs showing a king making
offerings or receiving gifts from the gods. The capitals or heads of the
columns are palm and lotus-leaved; some showing the papyrus in its
various stages of development, from the simple bud to the full-blown
flower. The representation of the palm and the papyrus occurs frequently
in Egyptian architecture; the leaves of the latter, it will be
remembered, were made into a kind of paper, and its flowers were
specially used as offerings in the temples. We shall afterwards inspect
some growing specimens of this curious plant in the fountain basin at
the north end of the Nave, as well as of the lotus, when these
restorations may be remembered with interest. On the frieze above the
columns is a hieroglyphic inscription stating that “in the seventeenth
year of the reign of Victoria, the ruler of the waves, this Palace was
erected and furnished with a thousand statues, a thousand plants, &c.,
like as a book for the use of the men of all countries.” This
inscription is repeated, with some slight additions, on the frieze of
the interior of the Court. On the cornice of both the inside and outside
of the Court, are the names of her Majesty and the Prince Consort,
engraved in hieroglyphic characters, and also winged globes, the
symbolic protecting deity of doorways. Entering by the central doorway,
on the lintels and sides of which are inserted the different titles of
King Ptolemy, in hieroglyphics, we find ourselves in the exterior court
of a temple in which the multitude assembled; the decorations of the
walls are similar to those we saw outside, and it must be borne in mind
that the colouring is taken from actual remains in Egypt. On the wall to
the left is a large picture copied from the great Temple of Rameses III.
or Rameses Mai Amun, at Medinet Haboo, near Thebes, showing the counting
of the hands of the slain--three thousand as we are informed by the
hieroglyphics engraved over the heads of the scribes--before the king
who is in his chariot; on the right-hand side of the Court is a
representation of a battle-scene, with the Egyptians storming a
fortress. Turning to the left, after examining the eight gigantic
figures of Rameses the Great, forming the façade of another temple, we
enter the Court of Amunothph, a colonnade of an early period, its date
being about 1300 B.C. The columns represent eight stems and buds of the
papyrus bound together, and are cast from a black granite column bearing
the name of Amunothph, now in the British Museum.
[Illustration: First order of Egyptian Column.]
Passing on we find ourselves in a dark tomb copied from one at Beni
Hassan. It is the earliest piece of architecture in the Crystal Palace,
its date being about 1660 B.C. The original tomb is cut in the solid
chain of rocks that forms a boundary on the east of the Nile, separating
the sandy desert from the fertile valley of the river. Although
architectural remains exist in Egypt of a much earlier date than this
tomb, it still possesses great value to us, for it may be considered as
exhibiting the first _order_ of Egyptian columns, which was employed in
constructing buildings at as remote a period as two thousand years
before Christ; this fluted column in another respect claims our
attention, for there can be but little doubt that it supplied the Greeks
with the model of their early Doric. The original tomb has but one
instead of four entrances as here represented, and is accordingly more
gloomy and impressive. What is lost in sombre effect, however, is made
up to the visitor in convenience.
Passing out, we behold, in front of us, a beautiful colonnade, or
portico, from the Island of Philöe, and of the same period as the
Egyptian wall which we first saw fronting the Nave. Within this we
cannot fail to remark the scattered statues, especially the Egyptian
Antinous, executed during the Roman rule, the life-like development of
whose limbs, representing, as it no doubt does, the Egyptian type, is
sufficient to convince us that when Egyptian art was not tied down by
the hierarchical yoke, it was capable of producing works of truth and
merit. Another work of art, executed when the country was under the
Greek yoke, is the remarkable bas-relief portrait of Alexander the
Great, inscribed in hieroglyphics and Greek characters. The Greek name
is spelt wrongly--a sufficient proof that the work of art is from the
hand of an Egyptian artist. Amidst the statues will be found two
circular-headed stones--copies of the celebrated Rosetta stone (so
called from having been found at the little town of Rosetta, near
Alexandria) from which Dr. Young and Champollion obtained a key to the
deciphering of hieroglyphics. The stone is engraved in three characters:
Hieroglyphic, Enchorial--the writing of the country--and Greek; the
inscription is an address from the priests to the Greek King of Egypt,
Ptolemy V., in which the sovereign’s praises are set forth, and orders
are given to set up a statue of the king, together with the address, in
every temple. The date of this interesting remnant of Egyptian manners
and customs is about 200 years before the Christian era.
Further on to the right, as we face the west--in a recess--is the model
of the Temple of Aboo Simbel, cut in the side of a rock, in Nubia. The
sitting figures which, in the original, are of the size of the gigantic
figures which we shall afterwards see in the Northern Transept,
represent Rameses the Great, and the smaller ones around, his mother,
wife, and daughter. The original tomb is ten times as large as the
present model. It should be remembered that nearly all the models here
introduced are very much below the size of the architectural remains
which they represent. For example: the majority of the columns in the
Temple of Karnak are 47 feet high, and some are 62 feet. Turning from
this recess, and after looking at the beautiful lotus columns to the
left, surmounted by the cow-eared Goddess of Love of the Egyptians, and
having examined the two large pictures on the walls of the temple--one
of which represents a king slaying his enemies with the aid of the god
Ammon Ra, and the other a feat of arms of the same king--we direct our
attention to the columns before us, which are reduced models of a
portion of the celebrated Temple of Karnak at Thebes. This temple was,
perhaps, one of the largest and most interesting in Egypt; the principal
portions are said to have been erected by Rameses II. about 1170 B.C. It
seems to have been a fashion with the Theban kings to make additions to
this temple during their respective reigns; and, as each monarch was
anxious to outvie his predecessor, the size of the fabric threatened to
become unbounded. Temples and tombs were the grand extravagances of the
Egyptian kings. The sums that modern rulers devote to palaces which add
to their splendour whilst living, were given by the remote princes of
whom we speak, and who regarded life as only a fleet passage towards
eternity, for the construction of enduring homes when life should have
passed away. Inasmuch as, if the career of an Egyptian king proved
irreligious or oppressive, the priests and people could deny him
sepulture in his own tomb, it is not unlikely that many Egyptian kings
lavished large sums upon temples, in order to conciliate the priestly
favour, and to secure for their embalmed bodies the much-prized
sanctuary. It is to be observed, however, with respect to the names and
inscriptions found on Egyptian monuments, that they are by no means
always to be taken as an authentic account of the remains within. Some
of the Egyptian kings have been proved guilty of erasing from tombs the
names of their predecessors, and of substituting their own; an
unwarrantable and startling deception that has proved very awkward and
embarrassing to Egyptian antiquaries.
[Illustration: Column from Karnak.]
The portion of Karnak here modelled is taken from the Hall of Columns,
commenced by Osirei the First, and completed by his son, Rameses the
Great, a most illustrious monarch, whose deeds are frequently recorded,
and whose statue is found in many parts of Egypt, and who flourished
during the twelfth century before Christ. Before entering the temple, we
stay to notice the representations of animals and birds on the frieze
above the columns, which is the dedication of the temple to the gods.
Entering between the columns, on the lower part of which is the name of
Rameses the Great, and, in the middle, a representation of the three
principal divinities of Thebes receiving offerings from King Osirei;
and, after thoroughly examining this interesting restoration, we return
again into the outer court. The visitor who wishes to realise to himself
the actual condition of the principal Egyptian temples and
wall-sculptures of Karnak and Kalabshee, can do so by inspecting the
splendid collection of French photographs of these ancient works of art
in the Gallery immediately over this court, or by consulting the works
of Champollion and Sir Gardner Wilkinson in the Reading Room of the
Library. Regaining the Nave, a few steps, directed to the left, bring us
to
[Illustration: TOMB OF BENI HASSAN.]
THE GREEK COURT.[6]
Architecture and sculpture have here made a stride. We have noted even
in Egypt the advance from early rude effort to a consistent gigantic
system of art, which grew under the shadow of a stern hierarchical
religion. We step at once from the gloom into the sunshine of Greek art.
The overwhelming grandeur of Egypt, with its austere conventionalities,
is exchanged for true simplicity, great beauty, and ideality. Just
proportions, truth, grace of form, and appropriate ornament,
characterised Greek architecture. The fundamental principles of
construction, as will readily be seen, were the same in Greece as in
Egypt, but improved, added to, and perfected. The architecture of both
countries was columnar; but, compare the Greek columns before us with
those which we just now saw in Egypt, taken from the tomb of Beni
Hassan: the latter are simple, rude, ill-proportioned, and with slight
pretension to beauty, whilst, in the former, the simplicity still
prevailing, the rudeness and heaviness have departed, the pillars taper
gracefully, and are finely proportioned and elegant, though of great
strength. The specimen of Greek architecture before us is from the later
period of the first order, namely, the Doric; and the court is taken, in
part, from the Temple of Jupiter at Nemea, which was built about 400
years B.C., still within the verge of the highest period of Greek Art.
Passing along the front, we notice on the frieze above the columns the
names of the principal Greek cities and colonies.
[6] See “Handbook to the Greek Court,” by George Scharf, jun.; also,
“An Apology for the Colouring of the Greek Court,” by Owen Jones.
[Illustration: Plan of the Greek Court.]
We enter the court through the central opening. This portion represents
part of a Greek _agora_, or forum, which was used as a market, and also
for public festivals, for political and other assemblies. Around the
frieze in this central division are the names of the poets, artists, and
philosophers of Greece, and of their most celebrated patrons, the list
commencing immediately above the place of entrance with old blind Homer,
and finishing with Anthemius, the architect of Saint Sophia at
Constantinople. The names, it will be remarked, are inserted in the
Greek characters of the period at which the various persons lived. The
monograms within the chaplets on the frieze are formed of the initial
letters of the Muses, the Graces, the Good and the Wise. The colouring
of this court, with its blue, red, and yellow surfaces, blazoned with
gold, produces an excellent effect. It is the object of the decorators
to give to the whole of the architectural specimens in the Crystal
Palace those colours which there is reason to know, or to believe they
originally possessed; to restore them, in fact, as far as possible, to
their pristine state, in order that the imagination of the spectator may
be safely conducted back in contemplation to the artistic
characteristics of distant and distinctive ages. In this court are
arranged sculptures and models of temples. Amongst the former will be
recognised many of the finest statues and groups of the Greek school,
the Laocoon (16); the Farnese Juno (6); the Dione (3); the Genius of
Death (24); the well-known Discobolus (4) from the Vatican; the Ariadne,
also from the Vatican (27); the Sleeping or Barberini Faun (19); and, in
the centre, the unrivalled Venus of Milo, which affords perhaps the most
perfect combination of grandeur and beauty in the female form (1). We
make our way round this court, beginning at the right hand. After
examining the collection, we pass between the columns into the small
side court (next to Egypt), answering to a stoa of the Agora. Around the
frieze are found the names of the great men of the Greek colonies,
arranged in chronological order. The visitor has here an opportunity of
contrasting the architecture and sculpture of the Egyptians with those
of the Greeks. On one side of him is an Egyptian wall inclining inwards,
with its angular pictorial decorations, and the passive colossal figures
guarding the entrances. On the other side are the beautiful columns and
bold cornice of the Greek Doric, surrounded by statues characterised by
beauty of form and refined idealised expression. In this division will
also be found the busts of the Greek Poets, arranged in chronological
order, commencing on the right-hand side from the Nave: these form a
portion and the commencement of the Portrait Gallery of the Crystal
Palace.
Making our way through the opening in the back, opposite the Nave, we
enter a covered atrium, commonly attached to the portion of the agora
here reproduced. The massive _antæ_, or square pillars, and the panelled
ceiling--the form of the latter adapted from the Temple of Apollo at
Bassæ in Arcadia--give the visitor another specimen of Greek
architecture. We proceed, to the right, down this atrium, occasionally
stepping out to examine the sculpture arranged in the gallery, and the
restored and coloured frieze of the Parthenon of Athens, which extends
its length along the wall. The coloured portion has been executed under
the direction of Mr. Owen Jones, the golden hair being founded on
authentic examples which still exist on analogous remains of ancient
Greek art.[7] The tints on the different figures are put forth rather as
suggestions than restorations. We really know nothing certain of the
manner in which these celebrated relievos were coloured. Acknowledging
this fact, Mr. Jones, in thus boldly supplying pigment, has proceeded
upon the known principle of the Greeks--using the tints so as to enhance
the effect of the sculpture. This frieze represents the Panathenaic
procession to the temple of Athene Polias, which formed part of the
display at this greatest of the Athenian festivals, and took place every
fourth year. Dividing the frieze, is one of the most interesting objects
in the Crystal Palace, a model of the western front of the Parthenon
itself, about one-fourth the size of the original structure. This is the
largest model that has ever been constructed of this beautiful temple,
and possesses the great charm of a veritable copy. The scale is
sufficiently large to give a complete idea of the original. This
admirable model is due to the intelligent and successful researches
prosecuted in Athens by Mr. Penrose, whose labours have thrown so much
new light upon the refinements practised by the Greeks in architecture.
Mr. Penrose has himself directed the construction of the model. In this
gallery are ranged statues and groups, including the celebrated Niobe
group, from Florence (187 to 187 L, inclusive). This subject of the
punishment of Niobe’s family by the gods was frequently treated by Greek
artists; and certainly the group before us is one of the most beautiful
examples of Greek sculptural art. It is supposed that the portion of the
group at Florence occupied the pediment of the temple of Apollo Sosianus
at Rome. The Niobe group belongs to one of the brightest periods. Casts
from those most beautiful and wonderful remains of ancient art, the
colossal figures from the pediment of the Parthenon at Athens, are also
here (185 to 186 B). The originals, brought over to England by Lord
Elgin in 1801-2, are in the British Museum, and the nation is indebted
for the acquisition to the painter Haydon, who was the first British
artist to recognise the value, and appreciate the beauty, of these
mutilated but inimitable monuments of art at the highest period of its
glory. They belong to the Phidian school, and are characterised by
simple grandeur, great repose in the attitudes, and a deep study of
nature in their forms. The Theseus more particularly displays a
marvellous study and appreciation of nature, and the figures of the
Fates (185 B), headless though they be, are the most awfully grand
impersonations the world has ever seen. In connection with the Parthenon
will also be seen a cast from a part of one of the actual columns, also
in the British Museum (150). Here also is the wonderful Belvedere Torso,
from the Vatican (67); the far-famed Venus de’ Medici (198), from
Florence, and the exquisite Psyche (199), from the Museum at Naples. The
visitor will not fail to be astonished, no less by the number than by
the charming effect of these works which have come down to our time, and
which will descend to the latest posterity as models of excellence.
Proceeding until we arrive at the junction of the Greek and Roman
Courts, we turn into the right-hand division of the outer court; round
the frieze of which are the names of the statesmen and warriors of
Athens, the Peloponnesus, and Attica. The busts ranged on either side
are portraits of the Greek philosophers, orators, generals, and
statesmen, arranged in chronological order, commencing at the entrance
from the Nave.
[Illustration]
[7] The remainder of the frieze is erected in the gallery above the
Courts.
We walk through this court until we reach the Nave; then turning to the
left, find ourselves facing
THE ROMAN COURT[8]
On approaching this Court, the visitor will at once notice a new
architectural element--as useful as it is beautiful--namely, the ARCH, a
feature that has been found susceptible of the greatest variety of
treatment. Until within the last few years the credit of the first use
of the arch as an _architectural principle_ has been given to the Greek
architect under Roman rule, but discoveries in Egypt, and more recently
in Assyria by Mr. Layard and M. Botta, have shown that constructed and
ornamented arches were frequently employed in architecture many hundred
years before the Christian era. It is to be observed that architecture
and sculpture had no original growth at Rome, and were not indigenous to
the soil. Roman structures were modifications from the Greek, adapted to
suit the requirements and tastes of the people; and thus it happened
that the simple severity, purity, and ideality of early Greek art
degenerated, under the Roman empire, into the wanton luxuriousness that
characterised its latest period. In comparing the Greek and Roman
statues, we remark a grandeur of conception, a delicacy of sentiment, a
poetical refinement of thought in the former, indicative of the highest
artistic development with which we are acquainted. When Greece became
merely a Roman province, that high excellence was already on the
decline, and the dispersion of her artists, on the final subjugation of
the country by Mummius, the Roman general, B.C. 146, hastened the
descent. A large number of Grecian artists settled at Rome, where the
sentiment of servitude, and the love of their masters for display,
produced works which by degrees fell further and further from their
glorious models, until richness of material, manual cunning, and a more
than feminine weakness characterised their principal productions; and
the sculptor’s art became degraded into a trade, in which all feeling
for the ancient Greek excellence was for ever lost. Thus, in the
transplanted art of Greece, serving its Roman masters, a material and
sensual feeling more or less prevails, appealing to the passions rather
than to the intellects and high imaginations of men. The cumbrous
dresses and armour which mark the properly Roman style, hide the
graceful and powerful forms of nature under the symbols of station and
office, creating a species of political sculpture. It is very curious
and instructive to notice at a glance the high intellectual expression
of the great men of Greece whose busts adorn the Greek Court, and to
contrast their noble countenances with the material and sensual aspect
of their conquerors, the Romans, who range peacefully close by: much of
the past can be gleaned from such a comparison.
[8] See “Handbook to the Roman Court,” by George Scharf, jun.
[Illustration: Plan of the Roman Court.]
In the wall now before us we have a model of a portion of the outer wall
of the Coliseum at Rome, pierced with arches and ornamented with Tuscan
columns. The Coliseum is one of the most wonderful structures in the
world, and the Pyramids of Egypt alone can be compared with it in point
of size. It is elliptical in form, and consisted outwardly of four
stories. In the centre of the interior was the _arena_ or scene of
action, around which the seats for spectators rose, tier above tier. The
enormous range was capable of seating 87,000 persons. Vespasian and
Titus erected this amphitheatre, and the work commenced about A.D. 79.
In this vast and splendidly decorated building, the ancient Romans
assembled to witness chariot-races, naval engagements, combats of wild
animals, and other exciting sports. A very beautiful and highly finished
model of the Coliseum restored will be found in the Court, which it will
be interesting to compare with the present state of the ruin as seen in
the model of the Roman Forum close by. A model also of the Pantheon will
be found here. These were all executed at Rome under the superintendence
of the late Dr. Emil Braun.
Entering the Roman Court through the central archway, we come into an
apartment whose walls are coloured in imitation of the porphyry,
malachite, and rare marbles with which the Roman people loved to adorn
their houses. This style of decoration appears to have been introduced a
little before the Christian era; and so lavish were the Romans in
supplying ornament for their homes, that the Emperor Augustus, dreading
the result of the extravagance, endeavoured by his personal moderation
to put a stop to the reckless expenditure: although it is recorded that
the lofty exemplar was set up for imitation in vain.
Following the same plan as in the Greek Court, we proceed round from the
right to the left, examining the sculptures and models. Amongst the
former will be noticed the statue of Drusus from Naples (222); the
beautiful Venus Aphrodite from the Capitol, Rome (226); the Venus
Genitrix from the Louvre (228); the fine statue of a musician, or female
performer on the lyre, from the Louvre (230); the Genius Suppliant
(232); the Marine Venus (233); the Venus Aphrodite from Florence (236);
the Venus of Arles (237); the Venus Callipygos from Naples (238); and
the Bacchus from the Louvre (241). Around the Court are placed the
portrait-busts of the most celebrated kings and emperors of Rome,
arranged chronologically, commencing, on the right-hand side of the
entrance, with Numa Pompilius (34), and terminating with Constantius
Chlorus (73). Having completed our survey, we enter the arched vestibule
at the back adjoining the Greek Court. This vestibule, and the three
others adjacent, are founded, in respect of their decorations and
paintings, on examples still extant in the ancient baths of Rome. The
bath, as is well known, was indispensable to the Romans, and in the days
of their “decadence,” when they had sunk from glorious conquerors and
mighty generals into the mere indolent slaves of luxury, the warm bath
was used to excess. It is said that it was resorted to as often as seven
or eight times a day, and even used immediately after a meal, to assist
the digestive organs, and to enable the bather to enjoy, with as little
delay as possible, another luxurious repast.
We proceed through these vestibules, as in the Greek Court, studying the
objects of art, and occasionally stepping out to notice the continuation
of the Parthenon frieze on the wall at the back, and the sculptures
ranged around. In the centre of the first vestibule is the Venus
Victorious (243); and in the third, the Diana with the deer (261),--two
chefs-d’œuvre of sculpture, that give an idea of the highest state of
art under Roman rule. We soon arrive at the sides of the Alhambra, when,
turning to the right, we find ourselves in a Roman side court, which is
surrounded by the busts of the most renowned Roman Generals, of
Empresses and other women.
Passing through this compartment, we once more make our way to the Nave,
and bring ourselves face to face with the gorgeous magnificence of
THE ALHAMBRA COURT.[9]
The architectural sequence is now interrupted. We have arrived at one of
those offshoots from a parent stem which flourished for a time, and then
entirely disappeared: leaving examples of their art which either compel
our wonder by the extraordinary novelty of the details, as in the case
of Nineveh, or, as in the court now before us, excite our admiration to
the highest pitch, by the splendour and richness of the decorations. The
Saracenic or Moresque architecture sprang from the Byzantine, the common
parent of all subsequent styles, and the legitimate successor to the
Roman system. We shall immediately have occasion to speak more
particularly of the parent root when we cross the Nave and enter the
Byzantine Court. Of the Moorish architecture which branched out from it,
it will be sufficient to say here, that the solid external structure was
of plain, simple masonry; whilst the inside was literally covered, from
end to end, with rich arabesque work in coloured stucco, and adorned
with mosaic pavements, marble fountains, and sweet-smelling flowers.
[9] See “Handbook to the Alhambra Court,” by Owen Jones.
[Illustration: Entrance to Alhambra Court.]
[Illustration: Ground Plan of the Alhambra Court.]
The vast fortress-palace of the Alhambra,[10] of a portion of which this
court is a reproduction, was built about the middle of the thirteenth
century. It rises on a hill above the city of Granada (in the south of
Spain), the capital of the Moorish kingdom of that name, which, for two
hundred and fifty years, withstood the repeated attacks of the
Christians, and was not finally reduced until 1492, by Ferdinand and
Isabella. The Alhambra, under Moorish rule, was the scene of the
luxurious pleasures of the monarch, and the stage upon which many
fearful crimes were enacted. Within its brilliant courts, the king fell
by the hand of the aspiring chief, who, in his turn, was cut down by an
equally ambitious rival. Few spots can boast a more intimate association
with the romantic than the Alhambra, until the Christians ejected the
Moors from their splendid home, and the palace of the unbeliever became
a Christian fortress.
[10] “The Red,” probably so called either from the colour of the soil,
or from the deep red brick of which it is built.
The part here reproduced is the far-famed Court of Lions, the Tribunal
of Justice, and the Hall of the Abencerrages and the Divan. The outside
of these courts is covered with diaper work, consisting of inscriptions
in Arabic character, of conventional representation of flowers and of
flowing decoration, over which the eye wanders, delighted with the
harmony of the colouring and the variety of the ornament. Entering
through the central archway, we see before us the fountain, supported by
the lions that give name to the court; and, through the archway
opposite, the splendid fringe of the stalactite roof of the Hall of the
Abencerrages, composed in the original of five thousand separate pieces,
which key into and support each other. The Court of Lions here is 75
feet long, just two-thirds the length of the original; the columns are
the same height and size as the columns of which they are restorations,
and the arches that spring from them are also of the actual size of the
original arches. Over the columns is inscribed in Cufic characters,
“_And there is no Conqueror but God._” Round the basin of the fountain
is an Arabic poem, from which we take two specimens:--
“Oh thou who beholdest these Lions crouching--fear not!
Life is wanting to enable them to show their fury!”
Less, we must think, a needless caution to the intruder, than the poet’s
allowed flattery to his brother artist. In the verse of Greece and
modern Italy, we find the same heightened expression of admiration for
the almost animating art of sculpture. The following passage is oriental
in every letter:--
“Seest thou not how the water flows on the surface,
notwithstanding the current strives to oppose its progress.
Like a lover whose eyelids are pregnant with tears, and
who suppresses them for fear of a tale-bearer.”
Through this brilliant court, the visitor will proceed or linger as his
spirit directs. There are no statues to examine, for the religion of the
Moors forbade the representation of living objects; in truth, the
exquisitely wrought tracery on every side, upon which the Moorish mind
was thus forced to concentrate all its artistic power and skill, is in
itself sufficient exclusively to arrest and to enchain the attention. A
curious infringement, however, of the Mahommedan law just now mentioned,
which proscribes the representation of natural objects, is observable in
the lions supporting the fountain, and in three paintings, which occupy
a portion of the original ceilings in the Tribunal of Justice and the
two alcoves adjoining. It is also to be remarked that, although the
followers of Mahommed scrupulously avoid stepping upon a piece of paper,
lest the name of God should be written thereon, yet that name is found
repeatedly upon the floor of the same tribunal. However, during the
State visit of the Princes of Oude to the Crystal Palace in 1858, while
they were inspecting this Court it was noticed that they, and many of
their attendants, avoided as much as possible stepping upon the
inscribed pavement. From these circumstances it would seem that the
Mahommedans of the West were more lax in their observances than their
brethren of the East, having in all probability imbibed some of the
ideas and feelings of the Spanish Christians with whom they came in
contact.
Passing through the archway opposite to that at which we entered, we
find ourselves in a vestibule which in the Alhambra itself leads from
the Court of Lions to the Tribunal of Justice. This is, however, only a
portion of the original passage. The arches opening from the central to
the right and left divisions of the vestibule are of the size of the
originals, the patterns on the Avails and ceilings being taken from
other portions of the Alhambra. It should also be remembered that the
different apartments here brought together do not stand in the same
relation to each other as in the Moorish Palace, the object of the
architect in the Crystal Palace being to give the best examples of this
style of architecture in the smallest possible space.
The visitor may now proceed through the left-hand arch into the division
next the Roman Court. On the right of this division he will find a small
room devoted to models, and specimens of the original casts of ornaments
of the Alhambra, brought by Mr. Owen Jones from Spain, from which this
Court has been constructed. Returning to the central division, he sees
on his left the Hall of the Abencerrages, with its beautiful stalactite
roof, already spoken of. All the Courts on this side of the building, up
to this point, were erected under the superintendence of Mr. Owen Jones.
Proceeding onward, we quit the Alhambra, and emerge into the north
transept.
The visitor passing into the Tropical division now crosses the Transept,
immediately in front of the colossal sitting figures, which he will be
able to examine with more effect when he commences a tour through the
nave, which we propose that he shall shortly make. Passing these figures
then for a moment, he directs his attention to
[Illustration: Pillar from the arcade of the Court.]
THE ASSYRIAN COURT,[11]
which faces him. This Court is larger than any other appropriated to the
illustration of one phase of art. It is 120 feet long, 50 feet wide, and
has an elevation of 40 feet from the floor line. Its chief interest,
however, consists in the fact of its illustrating a style of art of
which no specimen has hitherto been presented in Europe, and which,
indeed, until the last few years, lay unknown even in the country where
its remains have been unexpectedly brought to light. It is little more
than ten years ago that M. Botta, the French Consul at Mossul, first
discovered the existence of sculptural remains of the old Assyrian
empire at Khorsabad: and since that time the palace, now known to have
been erected about the year 720 B.C. by Sargon, the successor of
Shalmaneser, has been mainly explored, as well as the palace of his son
Sennacherib at Koyunjik, and that of Esarhaddon and Sardanapalus, at
Nimroud, besides other older palaces in the last-named locality. In
addition to the explorations that have been made on these sites,
extensive excavations and examinations also within the last few years
have been made into the ruins of the palaces of Nebuchadnezzar at
Babylon, and of Darius and Xerxes at Susa.
[11] See “Handbook to the Nineveh Court,” by Austen Henry Layard.
It is from the immense mass of new materials, so suddenly revealed,
that Mr. James Fergusson, assisted by Mr. Layard, has erected the court
before which the visitor now stands--an architectural illustration
which, without pretending to be a literal copy of any one building, most
certainly represents generally the architecture of the extinct but once
mighty kingdoms of Mesopotamia, during the two centuries that elapsed
between the reign of Sennacherib and that of Xerxes, viz., from about
B.C. 700 to B.C. 500.
The oldest form of architecture in these Eastern parts was probably that
which existed in Babylon: but the absence of stone in that country
reduced the inhabitants to the necessity of using bricks only, and for
the most part bricks burnt by the sun, though sometimes fire-burnt
brickwork is also found. The face of the walls so constructed was
ornamented with paintings, either on plaster or enamelled on the bricks,
whilst the constructive portions and roofs were of wood. All this
perishable material has of course disappeared, and nothing now remains
even of the Babylon built by Nebuchadnezzar but formless mounds of
brickwork. In the more northern kingdom of Assyria, the existence of
stone and marble secured a wainscoting of sculptured slabs for the
palace walls, whilst great winged bulls and giant figures, also in
stone, adorned the portals and façades. The pillars, however, which
supported the roofs, and the roofs themselves, were all of wood,
generally of cedar, and these having been destroyed by fire or by the
lapse of ages, nothing remains to tell of their actual size and form.
Yet we are not left entirely to conjecture in respect of them. Susa and
Persepolis in Persia--the followers and imitators of Nineveh--arose in
districts where stone was abundant, and we find that the structures in
these cities had not only stone pillars to support the roof, but also
stone jambs in the doorways, thus affording an unmistakeable clue to the
nature of such portions of building as are wanting to complete our
knowledge of the architecture of the Assyrian people.
As now laid bare to us, the Assyrian style of architecture differs
essentially from any other with which we have hitherto been made
acquainted. Its main characteristics are enormously thick mud-brick
walls, covered with painted bas-reliefs, and roofs supported internally
by slight but elegant wooden columns, ornamented with volutes (spiral
mouldings), and the elegant honeysuckle ornament which was afterwards
introduced through Ionia into Greece--this Assyrian style being,
according to some, the parent of the Ionic order, as the Egyptian was of
the Doric order, of Greece. The very greatest interest attaches to these
architectural remains, and to the records cut in enduring stone, which
they have handed down to us, inasmuch as they corroborate, in a most
remarkable manner, certain statements in the Bible connected with Jewish
History. There can be little doubt that the Assyrians and Jews sprang
from the same stock; and no one can fail to remark that the physiognomy
of the Assyrians, as pourtrayed in these sculptures, bears a strong
resemblance to the Israelitish visage. As far as we can judge from
descriptions, the architecture of ancient Jerusalem was almost identical
with that of Assyria.
[Illustration: Entrance to the Nineveh Court.]
The whole of the lower portion of the exterior front and sides of this
Court is taken from the palace at Khorsabad, the great winged bulls,
the giants strangling the lions (supposed to represent the Assyrian
Hercules), and the other features, being casts from the objects sent
from the site of the palace, to the Louvre, and arranged, as far as
circumstances admit, in the relative position of the original objects as
they were discovered. The dwarf columns on the walls, with the double
bull capitals, are modelled from details found at Persepolis and Susa,
whilst the cornice and battlements above have been copied from
representations found in one of the bas-reliefs at Khorsabad. The
painting of the cornice is in strict accordance with the recent
discoveries of that place.
[Illustration: Plan of the Assyrian Court.]
Entering through the opening in the side, guarded by colossal bulls, the
visitor finds himself in a large hall, in the centre of which stand four
great columns copied literally from columns found at Susa and
Persepolis. The walls of the hall are covered with sculpture, cast from
originals brought to this country by Mr. Layard from his excavations at
Nimroud, and deposited in the British Museum. Upon the sculptures are
engraved the arrow-headed inscriptions which have been so recently, and
in so remarkable a manner, deciphered by Colonel Rawlinson and Dr.
Hincks. Above these is a painting of animals and trees, copied from one
found at Khorsabad. The roof crowning the hall represents the form of
ceiling usual in that part of Asia, but is rather a vehicle for the
display of the various coloured patterns of Assyrian art than a direct
copy of anything found in the Assyrian palaces. In the centre of the
great hall the visitor will notice a decorated archway at the back of
the Court. The very recent discovery of this highly ornamented arch at
Khorsabad, and also of a pointed example, proves--somewhat
unexpectedly--that the Assyrian people were far from ignorant of the
value of these beautiful features of architecture. A complete detailed
account of this interesting department will be found in Mr. Layard’s
valuable Handbook to the Nineveh Court.
Having completed his survey of the interior of this Court, the visitor
may at once quit the Court by the central entrance, and turning to the
left cross the north end of the Nave, stopping for one moment on his
passage to look from end to end of the magnificent structure within
which he stands, and to glance at the exterior of the Court he has just
quitted, the bright colouring of which, the bold ornaments, the gigantic
bulls, and colossal features, present as novel and striking an
architectural and decorative display as the mind can imagine.
Having crossed the building, past the avenue of Sphinxes, without
stopping at the colossal Egyptian figures to be noticed hereafter, the
visitor will continue the architectural illustrations with
THE BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE COURT.[12]
Before the visitor is conducted through the architectural Courts on this
side of the Nave, which have all been erected by Mr. Digby Wyatt, it is
necessary he should understand that they differ considerably in
arrangement and treatment from those on the opposite side, which have
already been described. In the Egyptian, Greek, and other Courts through
which he has passed, the forms or characteristics of some one
distinctive structure have, to a greater or less extent, been given; but
the Courts into which we are now about to penetrate are not
architectural restorations, but rather so many collections of ornamental
details stamped with unmistakeable individuality, and enabling us at a
glance to recognise and distinguish the several styles that have existed
and succeeded each other, from the beginning of the 6th down to the 16th
century. In each Court will be found important details, ornament, and
even entire portions, taken from the most remarkable or beautiful
edifices of the periods they illustrate. Thus the palaces and Christian
temples of Italy, the castles and churches of Germany, the
hôtels-de-ville and châteaux of Belgium and France, and the cathedrals
and mansions in our own country, have all been laid under contribution,
so that here, for the first time in the history of architecture, we
have the opportunity of acquiring a perceptive and practical knowledge
of the beautiful art during the period of its later progress.
[12] See “Handbook to the Byzantine Court,” by M. Digby Wyatt and J.
B. Waring.
[Illustration: Byzantine Court (entrance from North Transept).]
The regular architectural sequence on the other side of the Nave finds
its termination in the Roman Court, and we now resume the order of
history with the “Byzantine” Court. Art, as we have already indicated,
declined during the Roman Empire; but the general adoption of
Christianity gave the blow that finally overthrew it; for the
introduction of this faith was, unfortunately, accompanied with bitter
and violent enmity against all Pagan forms of beauty. An edict of
Theodosius, in the early part of the 5th century, ordered that pagan art
should be utterly annihilated, and the primitive Christians demolished
with frantic zeal the temples, bronzes, paintings, and statues that
adorned the Romish capital.
To complete the work of destruction, it is related that Gregory (A.D.
590), one of the celebrated “Fathers” of the Roman Church, gave orders
that every vestige of Pagan Rome should be consigned to the Tiber; and
thus was ancient Art smitten and overthrown, and the attempt made to
efface its very foot-prints from the earth; so that, indeed, men had now
to proceed as best they might, by painful and laborious efforts, towards
the formation of a new and essentially Christian style of architecture,
which, however feeble and badly imitated from ancient models at its
commencement, was finally productive of the most original and beautiful
results.
Constantine the Great, in the early part of the 4th century, embraced
Christianity. The new religion required structures capable of holding
large assemblages of people at certain periods; and notwithstanding the
magnificence of some of the Roman structures, none could be found
appropriate to the required use, save the Basilicas, or Halls of
Justice, at Rome. The form of these structures was oblong, and the
interior consisted of a central avenue and two side aisles, divided from
the centre by a double row of columns, the central avenue terminating in
a semicircular recess with the roof rounded off. It will be at once
apparent that such buildings were admirably adapted to the purposes and
observances of the new religion; and, accordingly, in A.D. 323, when
Constantine removed the seat of empire from the West to the East, from
Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople), the Roman Basilica probably served
as a model for the Christian churches which he rapidly raised in his new
city.
But on this point we have little authentic information; time, the
convulsions of nature, and the destructive hand of man, have long since
lost to us the original churches built on Constantine’s settlement at
Byzantium, and the oldest monument with which we are acquainted, that of
Santa Sophia, built in the early part of the 6th century by Justinian,
bears no relation in its plan to the long basilica of the Western
Empire.
[Illustration: Greek Cross.]
[Illustration: Latin Cross.]
The great characteristic of Byzantine church architecture was a plan
formed on the Greek cross, and surmounted at its points of intersection
by a central dome. The direct imitation of the antique capitals was
eschewed, and a foliated capital was introduced in its place, varying
considerably in pattern even in the same building: the arch was in
general semicircular, and the use of mosaic ornament universal, but it
was some time before the Byzantine style received its full development;
for the earlier Christians generally maintained a profound antipathy to
all Art, as ostentatious, and savouring overmuch of worldly delights.
It is not, however, in the nature of man to exist for any length of time
in this world, wondrously adorned as it is by its Divine Creator,
without imbibing a love for the adornment so profusely displayed around
him. This natural feeling, which St. Augustine and the stricter
Christians vainly sought to decry and repress, was strengthened and
aided by the more forcible notion of holding out some attraction to the
pagans, who, accustomed to the ceremonies and charms of their old rites,
might be repelled by the apparent gloominess of the new creed. As the
number of converts increased, a demand for church ornament made itself
felt, and Art once more awoke, not in the excelling beauty of its former
life, but rude, unpolished, and crippled by religious necessity, which
placed, as in Egypt of old, a restriction upon the forms of nature, lest
by copying them the people should relapse into the idolatrous worship of
graven images. In the Eastern or Greek Church, even the rude and
grotesque sculpture first allowed was speedily forbidden and banished
for ever. The mosaic painting, however, was continued by Greek artists,
and this peculiar style of ornamentation is one of the most distinctive
features of Byzantine architecture. Not only were the walls and ceilings
covered with extraordinarily rich examples of glass mosaic work, formed
into pictures illustrative of Scripture subjects and saintly legends, or
arranged in elaborate patterns of geometrical and other ornament, but
columns, pulpits, &c., were rendered brilliant with its glowing colours.
Mosaic work also is at times found on the façades of the Byzantine
buildings; whilst the pavement, if less gorgeous, was at least as richly
ornamented with coloured inlay of _marble_ mosaic. As we have, however,
just observed, the fear of idolatry led to the comparative neglect of
sculpture, and the edict forbidding the sculpture of images for
religious purposes became one cause of the separation of the Latin
Church in Rome from the Greek Church in Constantinople, and thenceforth
the two churches remain distinct. In the former, sculpture continued to
exist, not as an independent art, but as a mere architectural accessory.
[Illustration: Byzantine Court--Arches from the Nave.]
Byzantine architecture flourished from A.D. 328 to 1453; but the
Byzantine proper can be said to extend only from the 6th to the 11th
centuries. Romanesque architecture in its various developments was more
or less impressed with the Byzantine character, and in its general
features resembles the source from which it was in a great measure
derived; although the dome is generally absent in the churches of
northern Europe, which retained the plan of the old Roman basilica in
preference to that of the Greek cross, for a long time peculiar to the
Eastern Church.
It would not be hazarding too much to assert that Byzantine architecture
was generally adopted throughout most European countries from the 6th to
the 11th century, with such modifications as the necessities of climate,
the differences of creed, and the means of building necessitated.
[Illustration: Ground Plan of Byzantine Court.]
Before entering this court the visitor will do well to examine its
external decoration, affording, as it does, not only an excellent notion
of the splendid mosaic ornament, we have already alluded to as
peculiarly Byzantine, but for its paintings of illustrious characters of
the Byzantine period, taken from valuable illuminations and mosaics
still in existence; such as the fine portraits of Justinian and his
consort Theodora, from Ravenna (by the entrance from the Nave), and
those of Charles the Bald of France, and the Emperor Nicephorus
Botoniates of Constantinople, copied from valuable existing authorities;
whilst an allegorical representation of Night, on the return side, is a
proof that the poetry of Art was not altogether dead in the 10th
century, to which date it belongs.
In front of all the courts facing the Nave, are placed many very
interesting examples of Mediæval and Renaissance Art, a brief notice of
which will be found later in this volume.
The entrance to the gallery at the back of the Byzantine Court is formed
by the Chancel Arch of Tuam Cathedral in Ireland, built about the
beginning or middle of the 13th century, a most interesting relic of art
in the Sister Isle.
[Illustration: Arch and Column from Cloister.]
Entering through the arches from the North Transept, we turn to the
right into a cool cloister of the Romanesque school, a restored copy of
a cloister at the church of Santa Maria in Capitolo, at Cologne, an
ancient edifice said to have been commenced about the year 700. The
cloister is, however, of the close of the 10th century. The restoration
gives us an excellent notion of the arches, columns, and capitals of
this period, and shows the difference that exists between Byzantine and
ancient Greek or Roman art. Proceeding through the cloister, the roof of
which is beautifully decorated with Byzantine ornament, in imitation of
the glass mosaic work, we remark various pieces of sculpture, chiefly
from Venice: at the extreme end, to the left, having our back to the
Nave, is a recumbent effigy of Richard Cœur de Lion, from Rouen; at the
farthest end, to the right, is placed the Prior’s doorway from Ely, in a
late Norman style; and next to this, to the right, a representation of
the Baptism of Christ, from St. Mark’s, at Venice. We enter the court
itself. The marble fountain in the centre is an exact copy of one at
Heisterbach on the Rhine. We may now obtain some notion of the different
features which mark the Byzantine, the German Romanesque, and Norman
styles; all agreeing in general character, but all varying in treatment.
The cloister we have just quitted, with the cubical capitals of its
external columns and its profuse mosaics, presents a strongly marked
impress of the Byzantine style, the same influence being also remarked
in the external mosaic work of the small but beautiful portion of the
cloisters of St. John Lateran at Rome; on each side of which are fine
examples of German Romanesque, which is frequently also called the
Lombard style, as indicative of its origin; and beyond these again, in
the extreme angles, are interesting specimens of the Norman style as
practised in England during the 12th century. These examples will enable
the visitor to judge in some measure of the differences that
characterise the three. To the left is a very curious Norman doorway,
from Kilpeck Church, in Herefordshire; the zigzag moulding around it is
peculiar to the Norman; and in the sculptured reliefs which surround the
doorway a symbolism is hidden, for the meaning of which we must refer
our readers to the Handbook of this Court. Next to this is a doorway
from Mayence Cathedral, the bronze doors within it, which are from
Augsburg Cathedral, in Germany, being interesting examples of the art of
bronze-casting in the latter half of the 11th century. The
rudely-executed subjects in the panels are mostly taken from the Old
Testament, but no attempt at chronological arrangement has been made.
Above the St. John Lateran cloister is an arcade from Gelnhausen in
Germany, a good specimen of grotesque and symbolic sculpture quite in
the style of the early Lombard work in Northern Italy. The doorway on
the opposite side of the St. John Lateran cloister is a composition
showing the general characteristics of the Romanesque style; the doors
are from Hildesheim Cathedral, and were executed in 1015, by order of
Bishop Bernwardus. They contain sixteen panels, arranged in proper
order, eight representing scenes in the Old Testament, commencing with
the creation of man, and eight representing subjects from the New
Testament, beginning with the Annunciation. Next to this, and
corresponding to the Kilpeck doorway, is a second side door from Shobdon
Church, Herefordshire. The circles ornamented with foliage over the
Shobdon Chancel Arch, are from Moissac. On the side wall next to the
Arch, is the monument, from Salisbury Cathedral, of Bishop Roger, who
died A.D. 1139; it is transitional in style, from the Norman to the
Early English.
On either side of the fountain in this court are placed the celebrated
effigies of Fontevrault Abbey (the burying-place of the Plantagenets),
consisting of Henry II. and his Queen Eleonora; Richard I.; and
Isabella, wife of King John. These date from the 13th century, and they
are not only interesting as works of art, but valuable as portraits, and
as evidences of costumes of that period. The effigy of Henry II. is the
earliest-known statue of any English king. An effigy of King John from
Worcester, and another of Berengaria, wife of Richard I., from the Abbey
of L’Espan, near Mans, in France, are also to be found here.
The inlaid marble pavement of the Court is copied from churches in
Florence, and is of the beginning of the 13th century.
Having thoroughly examined the various contents of this Court, we pass
through the opening in the arcade of St. John Lateran, before mentioned,
and enter a vestibule, the vaulting of which is from the convent of the
Franciscans, at Assisi, in Central Italy, with the paintings in the four
compartments of the vault, from their originals by Cimabue.
[Illustration: Door from Birkin Church.]
In the centre of this compartment is a large black marble Norman font
from Winchester Cathedral: the date of which has given rise to much
controversy; those assigned, ranging from 630 to 1150. Next to this font
is another from Eardsley Church, Herefordshire, of the 12th century.
Passing now to the left, we see on the back wall, looking towards the
Garden, three openings, the central one of which is a doorway from the
church of Freshford, in Kilkenny, of about the latter end of the 11th or
beginning of the 12th century, and on either side of it are windows from
the church of Tuam, in Ireland. Above the Freshford doorway is a large
circular window from Rathain Church, remarkable for its great antiquity,
and said to have been erected as early as the middle of the 8th century.
In this compartment are also placed Irish crosses, affording examples of
the sculptural antiquities of the Sister Isle; and some interesting
crosses from the Isle of Man. On the shaft of the Kilcrispeen Cross,
which stands in the centre of the gallery, amongst other ornamental
pieces of enlacement, will be seen four human figures platted together.
The influence of Byzantine Art in these Irish antiquities is clearly
marked. Having examined this compartment, we proceed for a short
distance southwards, down the corridor or gallery, and pass, on the back
wall of the Byzantine Court, first, a doorway composed principally from
an existing example at Romsey Abbey, the bas-relief in the door-head
being from Shobdon: and on the other side of the St. John Lateran
arcade, a beautiful Norman doorway from Birkin Church, Yorkshire: after
which we reach the smaller division of the Mediæval Court, dedicated to
works of German Mediæval Art, the entrance to which is beneath the
Pointed arcade on our right. Before passing from this Court, the visitor
should step into the large chamber on the left of the vestibule which
contains the Irish antiquities of Byzantine art, where he will find an
unique collection of modern ecclesiastical sculpture, consisting of the
original models from the study of the late Charles Geerts, the famous
sculptor of Louvain, the originals of which are mostly existing in the
churches of Belgium, but some are in England. These beautiful and
masterly productions will repay the careful student of art, as well as
all lovers of the beautiful, for a special inspection.
THE GERMAN MEDIÆVAL COURT.[13]
This small Court is devoted exclusively to examples of Gothic art and
architecture in Germany, and, taken with the English and French Mediæval
Courts,--which we shall presently reach,--gives an excellent idea of the
style and character of architecture in these three countries during the
Middle Ages. Such remarks as are required to explain the transition from
the Romanesque and Byzantine to the Pointed style of architecture, we
shall defer until we find ourselves in the Mediæval Court of our own
country. We, therefore, without preface, conduct the visitor from the
gallery of the Byzantine Court, through the side arches, directly into
the German Mediæval Court. The large doorway in the centre at once
attracts attention. This is cast from a celebrated church doorway at
Nuremberg, and is especially worthy of notice. On the wall to the right
is a doorway leading into the Byzantine Court. This is not copied from
any one particular example, but is a composition displaying the elements
of the German style. The equestrian statue of St. George is from the
Cathedral square at Prague, a work of the 14th century. The seven round
bas-reliefs at the top of the doorway, representing scenes from the life
of Christ, are fac-simile copies of the originals by Veit Stoss, at the
Church of St. Lawrence, in Nuremberg. On either side of this doorway are
two monuments, of Bishops Siegfrid von Epstein and Peter Von Aspelt,
opposite to which are the fine monuments of Albert of Saxony, and of
Bishop Von Gemmingen; all of these are cast from the originals, in
Mayence Cathedral. Above the arches, and all round the Court, is a small
arcade, the capitals, brackets, and other monuments of which are taken
from various German churches, but more especially from the Cathedral of
Cologne. Immediately over the arches through which we have entered, and
between the columns of the arcade, are four bosses with the symbols of
the Evangelists, also from Cologne Cathedral.
[13] See “Handbook to the Mediæval Court,” by M. Digby Wyatt and J. B.
Waring.
[Illustration: Plan of the German Mediæval Vestibule.]
Passing through the Nuremberg doorway, in the centre, we see immediately
before us, and over the arches leading to the nave, eight dancing
mummers, from the Town-hall at Munich; they are represented as
exhibiting before an audience, probably at some civic festival, and are
full of grotesque drollery. Beneath the mummers are placed consoles or
brackets, from the hall of Gurzenich, at Cologne, remarkable for the
humour displayed in their conception. On the wall to the right are three
large reliefs, from the church of St. Sebald, at Nuremberg. They are the
work of Adam Krafft, and represent:--1. The Betrayal of our Saviour; 2.
The Mount of Olives; 3. The Last Supper;--and in their execution show
great power and much less stiffness than is generally found in Mediæval
works. Adam Krafft was an excellent sculptor, who flourished at the
close of the 15th century. His works, which are chiefly to be found at
Nuremberg, possess great merit both in their search after truth and the
unusual manual ability they display. Immediately beneath these reliefs
is another by the same artist, taken from the Frauen-Kirche, or Church
of our Lady, at Nuremberg. It represents an Adoration of the Virgin, and
shows even more vigorous handling than the other three. On the other
side of the adjoining doorway, from the Monastery of Denkendorf, in
Wurtemburgh, is another piece, representing the “Coronation of the
Virgin,” also by Krafft. The monument beneath is from Munich, and is of
the 16th century. On the left-hand wall, next to the Nuremberg door, is
a bas-relief of “Justice with the Rich and Poor,” by Veit Stoss, from
the Town-hall at Nuremberg. Above and below this are others by Krafft.
The upper, the “Meeting of Christ and St. Veronica,” from the Via
Crucis, Nuremberg; the lower, another “Coronation of the Virgin,” from
the Frauen-Kirche, Nuremberg. Under this last are two ascribed to Albert
Durer--a “Circumcision,” and “Christ teaching in the Temple;” and on the
other side of the doorway, leading into the English Mediæval Court, is
the celebrated garland representing the triumph of the Church, by Veit
Stoss, from the church of St. Lawrence, at Nuremberg, which deserves
especial examination as one of the master-pieces of that sculptor, and
on account of its very peculiar arrangement. Other subjects in this
Court present excellent examples of German Mediæval Art down to the time
of Peter Vischer, whose works evince an evident influence derived from
the Renaissance School of Italy, at the close of the 15th and at the
commencement of the 16th centuries.
We now emerge into the Nave, and turning to the left, find ourselves in
front of
THE ENGLISH MEDIÆVAL COURT.[14]
It will have been remarked in the German Mediæval Court, that
architecture has undergone another change. No sooner had the Lombard or
Romanesque style become systematised, than features arose which
contained the germs of yet more important changes.
[14] See “Handbook to the Mediæval Court,” by M. Digby Wyatt and J. B.
Waring.
The Horizontal line principle of antique Art was gradually given up, and
a marked inclination towards the Vertical line principle took its
place. The full change was not yet by any means complete, and it
remained for the introduction of the Pointed arch, under Norman
influence in England and France, in the 12th century, to effect a
gradual revolution in the whole system of construction and
ornamentation, until nearly every trace of the preceding style was lost,
and another essentially distinct in all its characteristics arose in its
stead.
[Illustration: Entrance to English Mediæval Court.]
As we are now standing before the ecclesiastical architecture of our own
country, it may be interesting to notice briefly, and in chronological
order, the progress of Pointed architecture in England, and to specify a
few of those leading features which serve to distinguish the style of
one period from that of another.
Prior to our doing this, it will be well briefly to notice the Norman
style which preceded the Pointed, and which was extensively practised by
the Normans and English in this country, after the successful invasion
by William in 1066. Its leading features are extreme solidity, absence
of ornament (at its earliest period), semicircular or horse-shoe arches,
and the peculiar zigzag mouldings before noted. The buttresses or
supports placed against walls to give them strength are broad, but
project very little. The pillars are short, massive, and frequently
circular, whilst the capitals are usually cubical and channeled in a
peculiar manner, sometimes being quite plain, and at others carved with
grotesque and symbolic figures and foliage.
[Illustration: Side niche of Tintern door.]
The Norman lasted until the 13th century, when it made way for the first
pointed style, which is known as _Early English_. The arches in this
style are lancet-shaped; the pillars consist frequently of small shafts
clustering round a circular pier, and are much slighter and taller than
the Norman: the capitals are frequently without ornament, being simply
plain mouldings. When the capital is carved with foliage, the work is
boldly executed. Spires, too, although originating in the later Norman,
rose in the Early English high into the air, like landmarks to the
people, to point out where they might congregate to worship their Divine
Creator. The buttresses are bold, generally rising in diminishing
stages, and either terminating in a triangular head or sloping off into
the wall. Windows, two or three in number, were often grouped together
under a moulded arch, between the point of which and the tops of the
windows an intervening space was formed. This space, pierced with one or
more openings, gave rise to that most distinctive and beautiful element
of the Gothic style--TRACERY.
The _Decorated_ style, which succeeded to the Early English, flourished
during the 14th century, and the Court we are now about to enter
possesses numerous examples of this, the best and brightest period of
English Gothic; for in the Early English the style had not yet reached
its highest point of beauty, and in the later _Perpendicular_ it already
suffered decline. Tracery, as we have stated, was the chief
characteristic of the Decorated style; and it consists either of
geometrical forms or of flowing lines. As an example of the former, the
visitor may examine the arches of the cloister, containing the two
figures now before us, on the side niche of the Tintern door. The
foliated details and carvings, which also give character to this style,
may, in like manner, be studied with advantage in this Court. The
pillars are either clustered or single, and generally of octangular or
circular form; the capitals are sometimes carved with foliage, at other
times they are plain. The buttress is in stages and terminated
occasionally with Decorated pinnacles. The execution of the details of
this style was admirable, and the variety and beauty of the ornaments,
founded chiefly on natural subjects, gives to the _Decorated_ style an
effect which has seldom, if ever, been surpassed.
From the latter part of the 14th to the beginning of the 16th century
the _Perpendicular_ style was in vogue. It derives its name from the
tracery, which, instead of taking flowing forms, consists chiefly of
vertical lines. The arches became depressed in form, the Tudor arch
being distinctive of its later phase, whilst the ornaments were crowded,
and departed more from natural models. The more important buildings were
covered throughout with shallow panelled work and profuse ornament, over
which the eye wanders in vain for much-needed repose, and the effect of
breadth and grandeur of parts is lost and frittered away.
These few observations, imperfect as they are, may perhaps assist the
visitor’s appreciation of the Court we are about to examine. Without
further preface, then, we proceed through the archway, as usual, from
the Nave.
[Illustration: Arcade from Guisborough.]
We are in a cloister of the _Decorated_ period, founded in its arches
and columns on the Abbey of Guisborough, Yorkshire. Looking through the
cloister to the left, we see before us a doorway from the Chapel of
Prince Arthur, son of Henry VII., in Worcester Cathedral, which will
enable us to test in a measure the truth of our summary of the
Perpendicular style. On the extreme right we see the door of Bishop
West’s Chapel, from Ely, a capital example of the Later Perpendicular
style as it began to feel the influence of the coming Renaissance
period. Crossing the cloister we enter the Mediæval Court, which
contains architectural specimens taken from our ancient churches and
magnificent cathedrals.
The upper portion of the Court is formed of arches, containing, in the
spandrels, figures of angels illustrative of the gradual unfolding of
Divine revelation, taken from the “Angels’ Choir,” in Lincoln Cathedral.
The sculptures in the tympanum are mostly from Tewkesbury, and the
figures under the canopies are from Wells Cathedral.
[Illustration: Ground Plan of English Mediæval Court.]
Entering the Court from the Nave, we find, immediately facing us, the
magnificent doorway from Rochester Cathedral, coloured so as to give an
idea of its appearance when first erected. The different faces, “making
mouths,” introduced amongst the tracery of this door, afford a good
example of the grotesque spirit which forms so strong an element of
Gothic architecture. We may remark here that the practice of colouring
and gilding was carried to an almost extravagant extent in the Gothic
style, although the effacing hand of Time has left comparatively few
examples in a perfect state.
[Illustration: Doorway from Rochester Cathedral.]
On the left of the door is a portion of the arcading from the Chapter
House of Wells Cathedral, and next is the richly-decorated Easter
sepulchre, from Hawton Church, Nottinghamshire, representing the
Resurrection and Ascension of Christ,--a very remarkable monument of the
14th century. At the foot are the soldiers on guard at the Sepulchre,
sleeping, and in the centre (the altar-table) the Resurrection of our
Lord, bearing his cross; the three Marys in adoration at his feet. Above
is the Ascension, the Apostles standing around. This last subject is
treated in an original and ingenious manner, to come within the lines of
the architecture. This monument was used as an altar; various rites
being performed before it, between Good-Friday and Easter-day. A seated
figure, from the front of Lincoln Cathedral, is the next subject; and
further on, in the angle, is a Virgin and Child, in a niche,--a
beautiful piece of early 14th century work from York Minster; and next
is a portion of Bishop Alcock’s chantry chapel, from Ely Cathedral; on
the other side of the adjoining doorway, which is a composition chiefly
from the triforium of Lincoln Cathedral, we remark the very beautiful
oriel window of John o’Gaunt, at Lincoln, and next to it a portion of
the elaborate altar-screen of Winchester Cathedral.
On the right of the Rochester door is the finely designed monument of
Humphrey de Bohun, from Hereford Cathedral, with the effigy of the
knight in complete armour. Next to this, in the angle, we see the
recumbent figure of the “Boy Bishop” from Salisbury Cathedral. It used
to be the custom in the Catholic Church, annually to elect a bishop from
the children of the choir, who, throughout the year, kept all the state
of a regular bishop; and, in the event of his dying within the period of
his office, had his effigy erected as here we see. For further
particulars of this singular custom, see the “Handbook of the Mediæval
Court.” The door beyond corresponds to the one opposite; and further on,
near the cloister, is one of the doors of Lichfield Cathedral, with its
beautiful ironwork, the painting of which, to represent oak, is
remarkably clever; and a portion of Bishop Bubwith’s monument from
Wells. The exquisite niches and canopies round the walls of the court
are from Southwell Minster, Ely Cathedral, Beverley Minster, &c. The
statues on a line with, and corresponding to those on the monument of
Bishop Bubwith, are excellent examples of late Gothic work, from Armagh
Cathedral. The upper tier, consisting principally of sculpture, presents
valuable examples of that art. The large statues beneath the canopies
are from the façade of Wells; they are all of the highest interest with
reference to the history of sculpture in England. The floor presents a
remarkable and interesting series of the best sepulchral monuments of
the Gothic period which England possesses, viz., those of Queen Eleanor,
from Westminster; Edward II., from Gloucester; the celebrated monument
of William of Wykeham, from Winchester; and that of Edward the Black
Prince, in gilt armour and emblazoned surcoat, from Canterbury
Cathedral. The individuality observable in most of the faces indicates
that they are portraits. The very lovely face of the good Queen Eleanor
should not escape the notice of the visitor.
[Illustration: Elevation of English Mediæval Court towards the
cloister.]
Indeed all the subjects in this Court are full of value and interest,
and the numerous examples of Gothic art here collected, which we have
not space to describe in detail, form a museum in which the visitor may
obtain no inadequate idea of the rich treasures in this wise of our
country. Passing beneath the Rochester doorway, we enter a vaulted and
groined vestibule, the window of which is a beautiful example of the
Decorated style, from Holbeach, in Lincolnshire, filled in with rich
stained glass. Beneath the window is the painted monument of John of
Eltham, son of Edward II., from Westminster Abbey, on either side
statues from Wells Cathedral. In the centre is the very richly-decorated
font, from Walsingham, in Norfolk, an excellent example of the
Perpendicular style. The walls of the gallery are lined with statues and
monuments; those on the Garden side are all English, principally from
the façade of Wells Cathedral; those on the side of the Court are
chiefly from Germany and France. Amongst the latter, we draw particular
attention to the bas-reliefs on the walls, from Notre-Dame, Paris, as
excellent examples of early French Gothic. Amongst the central monuments
should be particularly remarked, behind the German Mediæval Court, the
Arderne tomb, from Elford church, Staffordshire; the monument of Henry
IV., and Joan of Navarre (his queen), from Canterbury Cathedral; the
tombs of Sir Giles Daubeny, Richard II., and Anne of Bohemia (his
queen), from Westminster Abbey, of about the year 1507; and behind the
French and Italian Mediæval Court, the splendid monument of Richard
Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, from Warwick, one of the finest Gothic
sepulchral monuments remaining in England. Passing beneath the arcade,
near the Beauchamp monument, we enter the next architectural
illustration of the series.
THE FRENCH AND ITALIAN MEDIÆVAL COURT,[15]
On the walls of which, on the ground row, are ranged a series of arches
from the choir of Notre-Dame, at Paris, the greater number of the
canopies which surmount them being taken from the Cathedral of Chartres,
both fine examples of early French Gothic art. The very excellent
statues, bosses, &c., are from various French churches. The statue on
the floor is by the great Italian sculptor, Giovanni Pisano (13th
century), and serves as a lectern, or reading-stand. The subject towards
the nave is composed of portions of the celebrated altar-piece of Or San
Michele, at Florence, by Andrea Orgagna (14th century). One of the two
statues nearest the gallery is by Nino Pisano, son of Giovanni. The very
elaborate example of iron-work near the nave entrance is from one of the
great west doors of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, and evinces such
consummate skill in workmanship as to have obtained for its artist, when
first made public, the unenviable credit of being in close league with
the Evil One. The exact date of this iron-work is not ascertained, but
it is of the best period of the French Pointed style.